Research article

The technical challenges and outcomes of ground-penetrating radar: A site-specific example from Joggins, Nova Scotia

  • The Carboniferous Joggins Formation is known for its complete succession of fossil-rich, coal-bearing strata, deposited in a fluvial meanderbelt depositional setting. Hence, the Joggins Formation outcrop is an excellent analogue for studying the 2D geological complexities associated with meanderbelt systems. In this research, a conventional ground-penetrating radar system was tested with the intent of imaging near-surface, dipping, strata of the Joggins Formation (potentially with subsequent repeats as annual erosion provides new visual calibrations). The survey was unsuccessful in its primary goal, and for future reference we document the reasons here. However, the overlying near-surface angular unconformity was successfully imaged enabling mapping of the approximately 8 m of overlying glacial till. A successful outcome would have allowed observations from the 2D outcrop to be extended into 3D space and perhaps lead to an increased understanding of the small (e.g., bedform baffles and barriers) and large (e.g., channel bodies) scale architectural elements, meanderbelt geometry, and aspect ratios. The study comprises a 42-line, 3.46 km ground-penetrating radar survey using a Sensors and Software pulseEKKO Pro SmartCart system. It was combined with a real-time kinematic differential global positioning system for the georeferencing of survey lines. The 50 MHz antenna frequency, with a 1 m separation, was chosen to maximize the depth of penetration, while still maintaining a reasonable resolution. The results show that many of the lines are contaminated with diffraction hyperbolae, possibly caused from buried objects near or under the survey lines or surface objects near the survey lines. A total of thirteen unique radar reflectors are described and interpreted from this work. The thick clay-rich soil overlying the Joggins Formation probably contributed to significant signal attenuation and the nature of the Carboniferous strata (dip of the beds, pinching and swelling of the beds, bed thickness, etc.) also contributed to imaging difficulties.

    Citation: Trevor B. Kelly, Grant D. Wach, Darragh E. O'Connor. The technical challenges and outcomes of ground-penetrating radar: A site-specific example from Joggins, Nova Scotia[J]. AIMS Geosciences, 2021, 7(1): 22-55. doi: 10.3934/geosci.2021002

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  • The Carboniferous Joggins Formation is known for its complete succession of fossil-rich, coal-bearing strata, deposited in a fluvial meanderbelt depositional setting. Hence, the Joggins Formation outcrop is an excellent analogue for studying the 2D geological complexities associated with meanderbelt systems. In this research, a conventional ground-penetrating radar system was tested with the intent of imaging near-surface, dipping, strata of the Joggins Formation (potentially with subsequent repeats as annual erosion provides new visual calibrations). The survey was unsuccessful in its primary goal, and for future reference we document the reasons here. However, the overlying near-surface angular unconformity was successfully imaged enabling mapping of the approximately 8 m of overlying glacial till. A successful outcome would have allowed observations from the 2D outcrop to be extended into 3D space and perhaps lead to an increased understanding of the small (e.g., bedform baffles and barriers) and large (e.g., channel bodies) scale architectural elements, meanderbelt geometry, and aspect ratios. The study comprises a 42-line, 3.46 km ground-penetrating radar survey using a Sensors and Software pulseEKKO Pro SmartCart system. It was combined with a real-time kinematic differential global positioning system for the georeferencing of survey lines. The 50 MHz antenna frequency, with a 1 m separation, was chosen to maximize the depth of penetration, while still maintaining a reasonable resolution. The results show that many of the lines are contaminated with diffraction hyperbolae, possibly caused from buried objects near or under the survey lines or surface objects near the survey lines. A total of thirteen unique radar reflectors are described and interpreted from this work. The thick clay-rich soil overlying the Joggins Formation probably contributed to significant signal attenuation and the nature of the Carboniferous strata (dip of the beds, pinching and swelling of the beds, bed thickness, etc.) also contributed to imaging difficulties.


    We focus in this work on families of planar real analytic vector fields X=P(x,y;λ)x+Q(x,y;λ)y defined in a neighborhood of a monodromic singularity that can be placed at the origin without loss of generality. Here λRp denotes the finite number of parameters in the family. We recall that a monodromic singular point of X is a singularity of X such that the associated flow rotates around it, and therefore a Poincaré map Π is well defined in a sufficiently small transversal section with an end point at the singularity. Centers and foci are examples of monodromic singularities. We will restrict the family to the monodromic parameter space ΛRp defined as the parameter subset for which the origin is a monodromic singularity of X. The common characterization of Λ is via the blow-up procedure developed by Dumortier in [1]; see also Arnold [2]. It is worth emphasizing that Algaba and co-authors present in [3,4] an algorithmic procedure to determine the parameter restrictions that defines Λ in terms of the Newton diagram N(X) of the vector field X; see also [5].

    In [6], an explicit analytic first-order ordinary differential equation was obtained for the Poincaré map Π associated with a monodromic singularity (without local zero angular speed curves) of X under the assumption of the existence of a Laurent inverse integrating factor V of X. Later on, in [7], an example of focus without Puiseux (a generalization of Laurent) inverse integrating factor is presente. This example shows that the differential equation obtained in [6] for Π is not universal.

    Initially, our first main objective in this work was to find an explicit analytic ordinary differential equation f(ρ,Π,Π,,Πk)=0 for the Poincaré map Π(ρ) associated to a monodromic singularity of X where f only depends on objects that do not include the flow of X. If this objective were achieved, an alternative proof of the fact that Π admits an asymptotic Dulac series can be constructed via Bruno's theory [8,9] of asymptotic solutions of analytic differential equations at singularities. In this work we take the former universal object to be the analytic invariant curve F(x,y)=0 through the monodromic singularity that there always exists, as it was proved in [10]. Using this idea, we find a first order ordinary differential equation for Π only depending on F; see Theorem 1.1 in Section 1.1, although we have been able to prove its analyticity only under some assumptions; see, for example, Theorem 1.6. This equation generalizes the one obtained in [6] in the sense that both coincides in the particular case that F becomes an inverse integrating factor of X, as we show in Section 2.

    We denote by N(X) the Newton diagram of X that is composed of edges joining both positive semi-axis; see [11] for a detailed account of this construction and also [3]. Each edge of N(X) has endpoints in N2 and slope p/q with (p,q)N2 coprimes. From now on we denote by W(N(X))N2 the set of all weights (p,q). We will use the weighted polar blow-up (x,y)(ρ,φ) given by

    x=ρpcosφ,  y=ρqsinφ, (1.1)

    with Jacobian

    J(φ,ρ)=ρp+q1(pcos2φ+qsin2φ).

    In these coordinates, the system associated to X is written in the form ˙ρ=R(φ,ρ), ˙φ=Θ(φ,ρ) with R(φ,0)=0 and Θ(φ,ρ)=Gr(φ)+O(ρ). Therefore, the equations of the orbits of X near the origin are governed by the equation

    dρdφ=F(φ,ρ):=R(φ,ρ)Θ(φ,ρ) (1.2)

    well defined in CΘ1(0) being the cylinder C={(θ,ρ)S1×R:0ρ1} with S1=R/(2πZ). the local set of zero angular speed is defined as Θ1(0)={(φ,ρ)C:Θ(φ,ρ)=0,ρ0}, and the set of characteristic directions Ωpq={φS1:Θ(φ,0)=Gr(φ)=0}. Notice that the set {ρ=0} is invariant for the flow of (1.2), and it becomes either a periodic orbit or a polycycle according to whether Ωpq= or Ωpq, respectively.

    We also define the (p,q)-critical parameters as the elements of the subset ΛpqΛ of the monodromic parameter space corresponding to vector fields with local curves of zero angular speed, that is,

    Λpq={λΛ:Θ1(0){ρ=0}}.

    We emphasize that Λpq= when Ωpq= but the converse is not true.

    Given (p,q)W(N(X)), we take the (p,q)-quasihomogeneous expansion

    X=jrXj, (1.3)

    where r1 and Xj are (p,q)-quasihomogeneous vector fields of degree j, and Xr is called the leading vector field of X.

    Let F(x,y)=0 be a real invariant analytic curve of X with F(0,0)=0, and denote by K(x,y) the cofactor of F, that is, X(F)=KF holds. We recall that F always exists, as it was proved in [10] using the separatrix theorem of Camacho-Sad. In weighted polar coordinates this equation is transformed into

    ˆX(ˆF)=ˆKˆF, (1.4)

    where ˆX=φ+F(φ,ρ)ρ, ˆF(φ,ρ)=F(ρpcosφ,ρqsinφ) and ˆK is the cofactor of the invariant curve ˆF=0 of ˆX whose expression is

    ˆK(φ,ρ)=K(ρpcosφ,ρqsinφ)ρrΘ(φ,ρ). (1.5)

    Let Φ(φ;ρ0) be the flow of ˆX with initial condition Φ(0;ρ0)=ρ0. In [10], it is proved that

    Ipq(ρ0)=PV2π0ˆK(φ,Φ(φ;ρ0))dφ, (1.6)

    exists for any initial condition ρ0>0 sufficiently small. Working in ΛΛpq we may also define the integral

    ζpq(ρ0)=2π0Fρ(φ,Φ(φ;ρ0))dφ, (1.7)

    and the difference

    αpq(ρ0)=ζpq(ρ0)Ipq(ρ0).

    A fundamental result in this work is the following one.

    Theorem 1.1. The equation

    ˆF(0,Π(ρ0))=ˆF(0,ρ0)exp(Ipq(ρ0)) (1.8)

    holds. Moreover, in ΛΛpq, the relations

    ζpq(ρ0)=log(Π(ρ0)), (1.9)

    and

    ˆF(0,Π(ρ0))=ˆF(0,ρ0)exp(αpq(ρ0))Π(ρ0) (1.10)

    are satisfied.

    Remark 1.2. We believe that the fundamental equation (1.10) holds in the whole monodromic space Λ and not only in ΛΛpq, but we have no proof.

    Remark 1.3. If X has >1 invariant analytic curves Fi=0 with cofactors Ki for i=1,,, then it also has the -parameter invariant analytic curve F=iFmii=0 with arbitrary multiplicities miN and cofactor K=imiKi. Sometimes we may find mi that simplifies the expression of K. As an example, the case when F becomes an inverse integrating factor of X, hence K=div(X), was studied in [6].

    Il'Yashenko in [12] proves that Π has a Dulac asymptotic expansion possessing a linear leading term. More specifically, one has Π(ρ0)=η1ρ0+o(ρ0). The computation of the first (generalized) Poincaré-Lyapunov quantity η1 is quite involved and needs the use of cumbersome blow-ups computations; see for example [13]. Some sufficient conditions that guarantee the computation of η1 are stated below. We will user the following expansions. The functions Θ and R appearing in (1.2) have Taylor expansions at ρ=0 given by Θ(φ,ρ)=Gr(φ)+O(ρ) and R(φ,ρ)=Fr(φ)ρ+O(ρ2). Moreover F(x,y)=Fs(x,y)+ and K(x,y)=Kˉr(x,y)+ are the (p,q)-quasihomogeneous expansions of the cofactor K associated to the analytic invariant curve F=0. Here Fs and Kˉr are the leading (p,q)-quasihomogeneous polynomials of weighted degree s and ˉr, respectively, and the dots denote higher (p,q)-quasihomogeneous terms.

    Proposition 1.4. Assume that both Ipq and ζpq can be extended with continuity to the origin. Then

    log(ηs1)=Ipq(0)=sζpq(0),

    that is,

    log(ηs1)=PV2π0Kˉr(cosφ,sinφ)Gr(φ)dφ=sPV2π0Fr(φ)Gr(φ)dφ,

    provided that both principal values exist.

    Remark 1.5. It is worth emphasizing that, in general, Ipq cannot be extended by continuity at ρ0=0. In [10], it is shown that expression (3.4) of η1 is wrong in several examples.

    Clearly, if Φ(φ;ρ0) is analytic at ρ0=0 for all φS1 then Π is analytic at ρ0=0. A sufficient condition for that to happen is that Ωpq=. Instead, a weaker condition to ensure the analyticity of Π is the following one.

    Theorem 1.6. If Ipq is analytic at the origin, then Π is too.

    The classical center-focus problem has been studied for decades. In [14,15], some particular degenerate systems with a monodromic singularity were studied. In [16,17], it is proved that some degenerate systems with a monodromic singularity are limit of differential systems with monodromic linear part. In [18,19,20] some sufficient conditions to have a center at a completely degenerate critical point are given. In [21], the relation between the reversivility and the center problem is studied. The textbook [22] is a good summary about the relations between the the center and cyclicity problems. In [23], a geometrical criteria to determine the existence of a center for certain differential systems is given. In [24], the Hopf-bifurcation formulas for some differential systems are established. Final, in [25], the authors solve the center problem for monodromic sigularities with characteristic directions and with inverse integrating factor and [26] the linear term of all the monodromic families known is obtained. However, no general characterization was known until the work [10], where it is proved the following theorem.

    Theorem 1.7 ([10]). Let X be a family of analytic planar vector fields having a monodromic singular point at the origin and K the cofactor associated to a real analytic invariant curve through the origin. Then Ipq(ρ0) exists for any initial condition ρ0>0 that is sufficiently small, and the origin is a center if and only if Ipq(ρ0)0.

    We show other necessary center condition in ΛΛpq.

    Proposition 1.8. If the origin is a center of X and we restrict to the parameter space ΛΛpq then αpq(ρ0)=ζpq(ρ0)0.

    Notice that from Proposition 1.8 and relation αpq(ρ0)=ζpq(ρ0)Ipq(ρ0), we obtain a new proof of the necessary part in Theorem 1.7.

    Example 1.9. We emphasize that there are focus with parameters in ΛΛpq and αpq(ρ0)0. As an example, we consider the family

    ˙x=λ1(x6+3y2)(y+μx)+λ2(x2+y2)(y+Ax3),˙y=λ1(x6+3y2)(x+μy)+λ2(x2+y2)(x5+3Ax2y). (1.11)

    In [27], it is proved that

    Λ={(λ1,λ2,μ,A)R4:3λ1λ2>0,  λ1λ2>0}

    and the Poincaré map is the linear map Π(ρ0)=η1ρ0. Moreover, F(x,y)=(x2+y2)(x6+3y2) is an inverse integrating factor of the full family (1.11).Using the weights (p,q)=(1,1)W(N(X)) we have X=X2+, hence r=2, and the forthcoming formula (2.3) yields α11(ρ0)=log(η71). The value η1=exp(2πλ1μ+23πAλ2/3) is a consequence of the works [6,27]. Notice that in this example 0Ω11.

    We consider analytic degenerate infinity vector fields

    X=Xn+AXE (1.12)

    with Xn=Pp+n(x,y)x+Qq+n(x,y)y a (p,q)-quasihomogeneous polynomial vector field of degree n, XE=pxx+qyy is the radial Euler field, and A(x,y) a real analytic function in R2 whose Taylor expansion at the origin starts with (p,q)-quasihomogeneous terms of degree m1 with m>n+1. In the work [28] the particular homogeneous case (p,q)=(1,1) is analyzed, and here we generalize it.

    Proposition 1.10. Any degenerate infinity vector field (1.12) has the homogeneous algebraic invariant curve

    F(x,y)=pxQq+n(x,y)qyPp+n(x,y)=0

    with cofactor

    K(x,y)=div(Xn)+(n+p+q)A(x,y).

    Moreover, it also has the inverse integrating factor V=FHmn1d provided that A is (p,q)-quasihomogeneous of degree m1, where H is a (p,q)-quasihomogeneous first integral of degree d of Xn.

    Proposition 1.11. Any degenerate infinity vector field (1.12) with a monodromic singularity at the origin becomes a focus provided that div(Xn)+(n+p+q)A(x,y) is a positive or negative defined function in a neighborhood of the origin. If additionally the origin is a center of Xn and A is (p,q)-quasihomogeneous then the Poincaré map associated with the origin is analytic and has the form Π(ρ)=ρ+ηmnρmn(1+O(ρ)) with

    ηmn=2π0(pcos2φ+qsin2φ)A(cosφ,sinφ)F(cosφ,sinφ)(H(cosφ,sinφ))(mn1)/ddφ.

    In particular, the origin is a center if and only if ηmn=0 and the cyclicity of the origin in family (1.12) is zero.

    Remark 1.12. We note that the (p,q)-quasihomogeneous first integral H of the monodromic vector field Xn appearing in Proposition 1.10 only exists in case the origin be a center of Xn. This statement can be inferred from statement (ⅱ) of Lemma 4 in [29] because the transformed first integral to (p,q)-weighted polar coordinates becomes a Laurent first integral of Xn. In particular, Π(ρ)=ρ+o(ρ) in agreement with Proposition 1.11.

    In this section we restrict our attention to the monodromic subset ΛΛpq so that Θ1(0){ρ=0}=. In particular Ωpq can be empty or not.

    Let us assume the particular case that F(x,y) is an analytic inverse integrating factor of X; that is, div(X/F)0 holds. Then the function

    V(φ,ρ)=ˆF(φ,ρ)ρrJ(φ,ρ)Θ(φ,ρ) (2.1)

    is an inverse integrating factor of ˆX in C{Θ1(0){ρ=0}}, that is, V satisfies the equation ˆX(V)=ρ(F)V. Applying the differential operator ˆX on both sides of (2.1) and taking into account (1.4), we obtain the relation between ˆK and ρF given by

    ρF=ˆKˆX(log|ρrJΘ|). (2.2)

    On the other hand, using (2.2) and recalling that αpq(ρ0)=ζpq(ρ0)Ipq(ρ0), we obtain

    αpq(ρ0)=2π0ˆX(log|ρrJΘ|)(φ,Φ(φ;ρ0))dφ=2π0ddφ(log|ρrJΘ|(φ,Φ(φ;ρ0)))dφ,=log|Πr(ρ0)J(0,Π(ρ0))Θ(0,Π(ρ0))ρrJ(0,ρ0)Θ(0,ρ0)|, (2.3)

    where we have used the 2π-periodicity of J and Θ in the variable φ. Using this expression of αpq and taking into account (2.1), Eq (1.10) in ΛΛpq is written in the simpler form V(0,Π(ρ0))=V(0,ρ0)Π(ρ0). In this way we rediscover the formula obtained in [6] by other methods. This formula for the special case of degenerate differential systems without characteristic directions was given in [30]; see also [31].

    Proof. To prove the first statement, we evaluate (1.4) along the flow Φ(φ;ρ0), and we obtain

    ddφˆF(φ,Φ(φ;ρ0))=ˆK(φ,Φ(φ;ρ0))ˆF(φ,Φ(φ;ρ0)),

    hence

    PV2π0ddφˆF(φ,Φ(φ;ρ0))ˆF(φ,Φ(φ;ρ0))dφ=PV2π0ˆK(φ,Φ(φ;ρ0))dφ, (3.1)

    where the last principal value exist for any initial condition ρ0>0 sufficiently small as it was proved in [10]. Therefore, (3.1) takes the form

    ˆF(2π,Φ(2π;ρ0))=ˆF(0,ρ0)exp(Ipq(ρ0)).

    Using the 2π-periodicity of ˆF in the variable φ and the definition of Π, the former equation becomes (1.8).

    To prove the second part, we use the definition of Φ(φ;ρ0), that is,

    Φφ(φ;ρ0)=F(φ,Φ(φ;ρ0)),  Φ(0;ρ0)=ρ0>0. (3.2)

    Working in ΛΛpq we know that F is analytic in C{ρ=0}; hence, Φ is also analytic there, and differentiating both expressions in (3.2) with respect to ρ0 yields

    φ(Φρ0(φ;ρ0))=Fρ(φ,Φ(φ;ρ0))Φρ0(φ;ρ0),   Φρ0(0;ρ0)=1. (3.3)

    Clearly (φ,Φ(φ;ρ0))C{ρ=0} for all φ[0,2π], and therefore the function ρF(φ,Φ(φ;ρ0)) is continuous in S1×{0<ρ01}. Thus, we may integrate the first equality in (3.3), yielding

    2π0Fρ(φ,Φ(φ;ρ0))dφ=2π0φ(Φρ0(φ;ρ0))Φρ0(φ;ρ0)dφ.

    So we obtain

    2π0Fρ(φ,Φ(φ;ρ0))dφ=[log(Φρ0(φ;ρ0))]φ=2πφ=0=log(Φρ0(2π;ρ0))

    that can be written as Eq (1.9). Finally, Eq (1.8) is rewritten as the fundamental ordinary differential equation (1.10).

    Proof. Using the definition (1.5) of ˆK together with the (p,q)-quasihomogeneous expansion K(x,y)=Kˉr(x,y)+ and the Taylor expansion Θ(φ,ρ)=Gr(φ)+O(ρ) with ˉrr we obtain

    ˆK(φ,ρ)=ρˉrrKˉr(cosφ,sinφ)Gr(φ)+O(ρˉrr+1).

    From [10], we know that it is proved that the principal value Ipq(ρ0) defined in (1.6) exists for any ρ0>0 and small. If Ipq can be extended with continuity to the origin, then, using that Φ(φ;0)=0, we would have

    Ipq(0)={0ifˉr>r,PV2π0Kˉr(cosφ,sinφ)Gr(φ)dφifˉr=r,

    in case that this principal value exists. Moreover, from the (p,q)-quasihomogeneous expansion F(x,y)=Fs(x,y)+, we could use Eq (1.8) to express

    Ipq(ρ0)=log|ˆF(0,Π(ρ0))ˆF(0,ρ0)|=log|Πs(ρ0)Fs(cosφ,sinφ)+O(Πs+1(ρ0))ρs0(Fs(cosφ,sinφ)+O(ρ0))|

    whose extension to ρ0=0 gives Ipq(0)=log(ηs1), taking into account that Π(ρ0)=η1ρ0+o(ρ0). Comparing both expressions of Ipq(0), we have that if ˉr>r, then η1=1, whereas

    log(ηs1)=PV2π0Kˉr(cosφ,sinφ)Gr(φ)dφ, (3.4)

    when ˉr=r under the restriction that the former principal value exists.

    On the other hand, if ζpq can be extended with continuity to the origin, then, by (1.9),

    log(η1)=ζpq(0)=PV2π0Fr(φ)Gr(φ)dφ,

    assuming this last principal value exists. Then the proposition follows.

    Proof. We define

    f(ρ0,Π)=ˆF(0,Π)ˆF(0,ρ0)exp(Ipq(ρ0)).

    The analyticity of Ipq at the origin implies that (1.8) can be written as f(ρ0,Π)=0, where f is an analytic function in a neighborhood of (ρ0,Π)=(0,0). Therefore, the Poincaré map Π(ρ0)=η1ρ0+o(ρ0) must be a branch of f at the origin and, consequently, admits the convergent Puiseux expansion

    Π(ρ0)=i0ηi+1ρ1+in0 (3.5)

    with some index nN. Now we are going to compute n.

    By Proposition 1.4 we know that Ipq(0)=log(ηs1). Then exp(Ipq(ρ0))=ηs1+O(ρ0) with η1>0. Using that ˆF(0,ρ0)=ρs0(Fs(1,0)+O(ρ0)), we obtain that f(ρ0,Π)=Fs(1,0)(Πsηs1ρs0)+ from where we deduce that the Newton diagram of f only contains the edge L joining the endpoints (s,0) and (0,s) provided that Fs(1,0)0. We can take Fs(1,0)0 because, without loss of generality, we take 0Ωpq after a rotation (if necessary), and moreover we claim that the eventual real roots of Fs(cosφ,sinφ) must belong to Ωpq. To prove the claim, we observe that

    ˆF(φ,ρ)=F(ρpcosφ,ρqsinφ)=ρs[Fs(cosφ,sinφ)+o(ρ)],

    hence ˆF(φ,ρ)/ρs=0 is an invariant curve of the differential equation (1.2). Clearly that invariant curve can only intersect the monodromic polycycle ρ=0 at its singularities (φ,ρ)=(φ,0) with φΩpq.

    Once we know that Fs(1,0)0 so that the edge L has slope 1, then we compute

    f(ρ0,ρ0μ)=ρs0((μsηs1)Fs(1,0)+O(ρ0)).

    From this expression we deduce that the determining polynomial P(μ) associated to L is P(μ)=Fs(1,0)(μsηs1). Therefore μ=η1 is a simple root of P, and it follows that n=1 in the Puiseux expansion (3.5); this is a classical result that is proved, for instance, in [32]. Therefore, Π admits a convergent power series expansion at the origin finishing the proof.

    Proof. Let the origin be a center. Then Eq (1.10) must have the solution Π(ρ0)=ρ0 and therefore ˆF(0,ρ0)=ˆF(0,ρ0)exp(αpq(ρ0)) holds. We claim that ˆF(0,ρ0)0 so it must occur αpq(ρ0)0 proving the proposition.

    To prove the claim, we use the (p,q)-quasihomogeneous expansion F(x,y)=Fs(x,y)+ with Fs(x,y)0 a (p,q)-quasihomogeneous polynomial of degree s and the dots are (p,q)-quasihomogeneous terms of higher degree. Notice that s1 because (x,y)=(0,0) is an isolated real zero of F. Now we consider the expression

    ˆF(φ,ρ)=F(ρpcosφ,ρqsinφ)=ρs[Fs(cosφ,sinφ)+O(ρ)], (3.6)

    and we observe that ˆG(φ,ρ)=ˆF(φ,ρ)/ρs=0 is an invariant curve ˆX. Thus either

    ˆG1(0){ρ=0}=

    or

    ˆG1(0){ρ=0}{(φ,ρ)=(φ,0):φΩpq}

    by uniqueness of solutions of ˆX. But ˆG1(0){ρ=0}= by the monodromy of the polycycle {ρ=0}. Therefore ˆF(φ,ρ) has an isolated zero at ρ=0 for any φS1, and, in particular, the claim follows.

    The second part, that ζpq(ρ0)0, is a trivial consequence of the relation (1.9).

    Proof. The first part is straightforward since X(F)=KF holds because Xn is a (p,q)-quasihomogeneous polynomial vector field of degree n; hence its components Pp+n and Qq+n satisfy Euler relations

    XE(Pp+n)=(p+n)Pn+p,  XE(Qq+n)=(q+n)Qq+n. (3.7)

    The second part is also straightforward since X(V)=div(X)V holds, taking into account Euler relations (3.7) and XE(A)=(m1)A, together with the fact that system Xn(H)=0 and XE(H)=dH can be solved as xH=dQq+nH/F and yH=dPp+nH/F.

    Proof. In (p,q)-weighted polar coordinates, the angular speed of vector field (1.12) is ˙φ=Gr(φ)=F(cosφ,sinφ)/(pcos2φ+qsin2φ). Therefore, a monodromic necessary condition for the origin of X is that F has no real factors in R[x,y] so that Gr0 in S1. In particular, F has an isolated singularity at the origin, XMo(p,q) so Π is analytic at the origin, Λpq= and the origin is the unique real finite singularity of X. We observe that Xn has a monodromic singular point at the origin when X has it because both vector fields share the same angular speed ˙φ. Indeed, the origin is a center of Xn under our hypothesis that implies the existence of the first integral H of Proposition 1.10, see Remark 1.12.

    The monodromy of the origin implies that N(X)=N(Xn) has only one edge and that when we only vary the parameters of X in the monodromic space Λ, then the Newton diagram N(X|Λ) of the restricted vector field X|Λ is fixed. The inverse integrating factor

    V(φ,ρ)=ρmn(H(cosφ,sinφ))(mn1)/d.

    The explicit Taylor expansion of Π at the origin is just a consequence of statement (ⅱ) of Theorem 4 in [6]. Finally, we can use Theorem 7 in [6] to conclude that

    ηmn=2π0F(φ,r)V(φ,r)dφ=I1+rnm+1I2,

    where Ii are integrals independents of r and

    I1=2π0(pcos2φ+qsin2φ)A(cosφ,sinφ)F(cosφ,sinφ)(H(cosφ,sinφ))(mn1)/ddφ.

    Since the expression of ηmn must be independent of r>0 and sufficiently small, by Theorem 7 in [6], we deduce that I2=0, and the proposition follows.

    In this paper we have considered planar analytic vector fields X having a monodromic singular point with Poincaré map Π. Using the fact that always exists a real analytic invariant curve F=0 of X in a neighborhood of that singularity in the paper are given the relations between Π and F that can be used to determine new conditions in order to guarantee the analyticity of Π at the singularity.

    The special case when F is inverse integrating factor of X we rediscover the formula obtained previously in [25] by an other method. Finally some applications to the center-focus problem and also to vector fields with degenerate infinity are given.

    All authors carried out the main results of this article, drafted the manuscript, and read and approved the final manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript for publication.

    The authors declare they have used Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools in the creation of this article.

    The authors are partially supported by the Agencia Estatal de Investigación grant PID2020-113758GB-I00 and an AGAUR (Generalitat de Catalunya) grant number 2021SGR 01618.

    The author is partially supported by a MICIN grant number PID2020-113758GB-I00 and an AGAUR grant number 2017SGR-1276.

    Prof. Jaume Giné is the Guest Editor of special issue "Advances in Qualitative Theory of Differential Equations" for AIMS Mathematics. Prof. Jaume Giné was not involved in the editorial review and the decision to publish this article. The authors declare no conflicts of interest.



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