Loading [Contrib]/a11y/accessibility-menu.js
Review Special Issues

Materials for hydrogen storage and the Na-Mg-B-H system

  • This review on materials for hydrogen storage in the solid state gives a brief discussion underlying reasons and driving forces of this specific field of research and development (the why question). This scenario is followed by an outline of the main materials investigated as options for hydrogen storage (the what exactly). Then, it moves into breakthroughs in the specific case of solid state storage of hydrogen, regarding both materials (where to store it) and properties (how it works). Finally, one of early model systems, namely NaBH4/MgH2 (the case study), is discussed more comprehensively to better elucidate some of the issues and drawbacks of its use in solid state hydrogen storage.

    Citation: Daphiny Pottmaier, Marcello Baricco. Materials for hydrogen storage and the Na-Mg-B-H system[J]. AIMS Energy, 2015, 3(1): 75-100. doi: 10.3934/energy.2015.1.75

    Related Papers:

    [1] Yun Ying Ho, Laurence Tan, Chou Chuen Yu, Mai Khanh Le, Tanya Tierney, James Alvin Low . Empathy before entering practice: A qualitative study on drivers of empathy in healthcare professionals from the perspective of medical students. AIMS Medical Science, 2023, 10(4): 329-342. doi: 10.3934/medsci.2023026
    [2] Paula Barrett-Brown, Donovan McGrowder, Dalip Ragoobirsingh . Diabetes education—Cornerstone in management of diabetes mellitus in Jamaica. AIMS Medical Science, 2021, 8(3): 189-202. doi: 10.3934/medsci.2021017
    [3] Juliet A Harvey, Joanna R McBain, Heather Cameron . A survey of therapists views on reducing sedentary behaviour in an acute clinical setting. AIMS Medical Science, 2018, 5(4): 370-377. doi: 10.3934/medsci.2018.4.370
    [4] Dolapo Babalola, Michael Anayo, David Ayomide Itoya . Telehealth during COVID-19: why Sub-Saharan Africa is yet to log-in to virtual healthcare?. AIMS Medical Science, 2021, 8(1): 46-55. doi: 10.3934/medsci.2021006
    [5] B Shivananda Nayak, Krishnamohan Surapaneni, Pradeep Kumar Sahu, Purnima Bhoi, K V N Dhananjay, Santhi Silambanan, C R Wilma Delphine Silvia, Dhanush Nayak, K Nagendra, M Balachandra Naidu, Akash S Nayak . The mental health of the health care professionals in India during the COVID-19 pandemic: a cross-sectional study. AIMS Medical Science, 2022, 9(2): 283-292. doi: 10.3934/medsci.2022011
    [6] Segun Akinola . Advancing healthcare with AI: designing frameworks for diagnostics, personalized treatment, and enhanced efficiency. AIMS Medical Science, 2024, 11(3): 248-264. doi: 10.3934/medsci.2024019
    [7] Soodabeh Gholizadeh Sarcheshmeh, Fariba Asgari, Minoo Mitra Chehrzad, Ehsan Kazemnezhad Leili . Investigating the relationship between academic burnout and educational factors among students of Guilan University of Medical Sciences. AIMS Medical Science, 2019, 6(3): 230-238. doi: 10.3934/medsci.2019.3.230
    [8] Neimat Mahmoud Abd-Alrahman Ali Dinar, Ghassan Abd-Al lateef Mohammad Al Sammouri, Mohamed Abdalla Eltahir, Aida Ahmed Fadlala Ahmed, Hasen Jamaan Ahmed Alghamdi, Abdulrahman Ali Alghamdi, Waled Amen Mohammed Ahmed . Effect of diabetes educational program on self-care and diabetes control among type 2 diabetic patients in Al-Baha–Saudi Arabia. AIMS Medical Science, 2019, 6(3): 239-249. doi: 10.3934/medsci.2019.3.239
    [9] Ogunlana Michael, Oyewole Olufemi, Falola Jasola, Davis Abigail, Lateef Adetutu, Adepoju Modinat . Psychosocial problems among mothers of children with cerebral palsy attending physiotherapy outpatient department of two selected tertiary health centres in Ogun state: A pilot study. AIMS Medical Science, 2019, 6(2): 158-169. doi: 10.3934/medsci.2019.2.158
    [10] Jonathan Kissi, Daniel Kwame Kwansah Quansah, Jonathan Aseye Nutakor, Alex Boadi Dankyi, Yvette Adu-Gyamfi . Telehealth during COVID-19 pandemic era: a systematic review. AIMS Medical Science, 2022, 9(1): 81-97. doi: 10.3934/medsci.2022008
  • This review on materials for hydrogen storage in the solid state gives a brief discussion underlying reasons and driving forces of this specific field of research and development (the why question). This scenario is followed by an outline of the main materials investigated as options for hydrogen storage (the what exactly). Then, it moves into breakthroughs in the specific case of solid state storage of hydrogen, regarding both materials (where to store it) and properties (how it works). Finally, one of early model systems, namely NaBH4/MgH2 (the case study), is discussed more comprehensively to better elucidate some of the issues and drawbacks of its use in solid state hydrogen storage.


    1. Introduction

    In late 2014 and early 2015 a measles outbreak occurred in California that began when an unvaccinated 11-year old with an active infection visited a theme park. The disease was subsequently observed in 24 States (not all of which were linked to the California outbreak), with a total of 188 new cases identified in that year [1]. This outbreak was declared over on April 17, 2015. About 88 percent of the earliest cases of measles in California occurred among children who were either unvaccinated, or who had unknown or undocumented vaccine status [2]. The virus type in the California outbreak was identified as B3, which is the same virus type that caused a measles outbreak in the Philippines in 2014, and which has been linked to measles cases in 14 other countries since the California outbreak began.

    The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention lists 16 vaccine-preventable diseases—measles among them [3]. Prior to vaccinations in the U.S., 20% of those who developed measles, required hospitalization; poliomyelitis caused about 15,000 cases of paralysis every year; about 85% of infants born to mothers infected with rubella during the first trimester had serious birth defects; and the total estimated morbidity count associated with diseases that are now vaccine preventable was more than 1.1 million cases every year [4]. Although vaccinations have long been known to reduce morbidity and save lives [5], the recent outbreak of measles in the United States has been linked directly to the rise of an anti-vaccination movement [6]. Vaccination rates for measles, mumps and rubella (MMR) in the U.S. are now as low as 50%-86%; well below the threshold of 96%-99% required to achieve herd immunity [7].

    If the anti-vaccination movement gains any additional traction, developed and developing nations will have taken a dangerous step backward in protecting public health, especially that of children. There are many ways to re-emphasize the health benefits of vaccinations, but one novel approach that represents a perfect example of applied demography in public health is to illustrate how many lives have been saved, and how many people are alive today, as a result of a single breakthrough in the chain of historical events that led to the development and successful dissemination of live attenuated viral vaccines. 1 Here we illustrate how the discovery and use of a single cell strain used to grow most viral vaccines in use today (WI-38 [8] and a later derivative [9]), has already had a powerful impact on human life on an order of magnitude that is unprecedented in the history of public health. 2 This direct application of applied demography will shed new light on (1) the importance of vaccines in saving lives, (2) the chain of fortuitous events that occurred to create a public health breakthrough of this magnitude and, (3) make clear that the anti-vaccination movement represents a serious threat to a proven public health intervention.

    1 Our focus in this manuscript is only on live attenuated viral vaccines because we're using the development of a single cell strain (WI-38) critical in their creation as a unique way to illustrate the global health impacts of vaccines in general. This paper is not intended to serve as a review of all vaccine production techniques (such as DNA or recombinant methods), which are acknowledged to be critically important links in the chain of events that led to the successful creation and dissemination of vaccines.

    2 We use WI-38 as a point of reference because of its specific link to certain vaccines early in the vaccine movement, and because its development in the early 1960's served as a catalyst for the field. Full credit for the life-saving effects of vaccines belongs to the breakthroughs, scientific advances, and hard work of countless scientists and health care providers, all of whom together contributed to building the chain of vaccine development and use.

    A Brief History of Vaccinations

    Throughout most of human history, living a long life was rare because communicable diseases killed most people before the age of ten [10]. It wasn't until the discovery and dissemination of public health measures (broadly defined as indoor living and working environments, cooking [which kills pathogenic organisms], hand washing, refrigeration, sewage treatment and waste removal, clean water, and medical interventions (such as vaccinations) that the duration of life attained by many in both developed and developing nations, increased dramatically.

    Among the countless critical developments in the history of public health, one of the earliest and most important was the scientific status conferred to vaccination through the work of Edward Jenner in 1796 [11]. Prior to Jenner's discovery that dairymaids exposed to cowpox were immune to smallpox, inoculation (referred to as variolation at the time) was a common practice. This required the inoculator to lance a pustule on someone with active cowpox, and deliver the inoculant subcutaneously to a person previously unexposed. Not everyone benefitted from this procedure and some even died as a result. Jenner's discovery was that exposure to the milder cowpox conferred protection from smallpox - a related but usually lethal communicable disease.

    Vaccination is now one of the foundational legs of public health. In the 20th century, the top eight infectious diseases that are now amenable to treatment through viral and bacterial vaccines (smallpox, measles, whooping cough (pertussis), tetanus, meningitis, Hepatitis B, diphtheria and poliomyelitis) accounted for an estimated 600 million deaths and countless more cases of disability. Vaccines in use today are responsible for annually saving an estimated 3 million lives worldwide, and many more are saved from permanent disability. In spite of documented health and longevity benefits of vaccination, 3 an estimated 1.4 million children under the age of 5 still die every year due to lack of access to vaccines [12].

    3 As an example of what happens when vaccination stops, consider that in 1974 about 80% of Japanese children received pertussis (whooping cough) vaccine. That year there were only 393 cases of whooping cough in the entire country, and not a single pertussis-related death. Then immunization rates for children dropped to 10 percent. In 1979, more than 13,000 people had whooping cough and 41 died. When routine vaccination was resumed, the disease numbers dropped again (http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/vac-gen/whatifstop.htm#final).

    Critical to the modern success story of vaccinations, was a series of events required to transform the discovery that vaccines worked, to actually developing, testing, and administering them to large segments of the population. 4 The chain of discovery behind vaccine development includes: (1) isolating the etiological agent that causes a disease (a virus in the example discussed here); (2) developing a method of enabling the virus to reproduce so that sufficient progeny are produced to make a vaccine (viruses are obligate intracellular parasites that are unable to reproduce without a living cell as a host); (3) attenuating or killing the virus so it can no longer produce disease; (4) purifying the vaccine; (5) testing the vaccine for safety and efficacy; (6) storing and transporting it safely (this may require refrigeration); and then (7) distributing it to the population. A break in any one of these links in the chain of events for vaccine development and use, and the entire system fails. The focus of this analysis will be on step # 2 in this chain of events—the development of a live cell strain used to grow viruses.

    4 The focus of this analysis will be on human virus vaccines only, although it is acknowledged that bacterial vaccines for typhoid, tetanus, pertussis, pneumonia and other bacterial diseases have had a large impact on saving and extending lives.

    In the early development of the poliomyelitis vaccines, the first to be prepared in a cell culture, cells isolated from monkey kidneys (and never transferred from the first or primary vessel) were used to grow the viruses. However, it was discovered that these primary cells were often contaminated with dangerous viruses common to monkeys [13]. One contaminant, S.V. 40, was capable of producing tumors in laboratory animals and transforming cultured normal human cells into cancer cells [14]. Other contaminants were either lethal for vaccine workers or could produce pathology [15]. It was recognized in the early 1960s that step #2 in the chain of virus vaccine development was a critical step for creating safe and efficacious vaccines [16,17].

    The first human cell strain used for the production of licensed human virus vaccines, was WI-38 developed by one of us (L.H.) at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia in 1962. Unlike primary cell cultures, WI-38 is passaged from one vessel to additional vessels ad seriatim, thus producing almost unlimited numbers of cells from a single source for the manufacture of many human virus vaccines. Because a single cell strain can be frozen for indefinite periods of time, WI-38 has been frozen for 55 years, which is the longest period of time that normal human cells have been frozen. Of great importance, and unlike primary cells, WI-38 was exhaustively tested for safety and efficacy before use [18]. Freezing primary cells for testing is impractical. Since the early 1960's, the vast majority of human virus vaccines have been grown in WI-38 or its derivatives, 5 making its discovery and continued use a critical innovation in the historical chain of events required for vaccine development [19]. Unlike monkey kidney primary cultures, the importance of WI-38 is that (1) it is derived from a single donor, (2) it is free from contaminating viruses, and (3) it can be frozen for indefinite periods of time and tested for safety and efficacy before use in large scale vaccine manufacture [20]. WI-38 was distributed by Dr. Hayflick gratis to the world's human virus vaccine manufacturers.

    5 It is important to acknowledge that other uncontaminated human cell strains were subsequently developed. These were established years after the original development of WI-38 was described and used to develop and produce vaccines (e.g, the MRC-5 cell strain was developed in 1970 in the U.K). We consider WI-38 and MRC-5 together in this analysis because they were both important in the historical developments of virus vaccines for public health.

    Here we illustrate the unique contribution of the WI-38 cell strain to all human virus vaccines administered globally since the strains' origin in 1962, and the impact of these vaccinations on global trends in number of deaths averted and fetal deaths avoided due to the use of the WI-38 based Rubella vaccine. This example of applied demographic research is designed to illustrate how a demographic analysis, when applied to cell biology, yields unique insights into the value of public health interventions and the challenges posed by threats to public health that continue to emerge in the modern era.


    2. Data and Methods

    Vaccines for the following virus-based diseases were developed using WI-38: poliomyelitis, measles, mumps, rubella, varicella (chicken pox), herpes zoster, 6 adenovirus, rabies and Hepatitis A. Reliable estimates of the number of pre-vaccine annual cases and deaths from most of these diseases in the United States have been published [21]. Due to annual variability in the prevalence and death rate from each disease, 1960 was chosen as a single frame of reference for estimating the health impact of the vaccines. Prevalence rates and disease-specific death rates were held constant from 1960 through 2015 as a way to assess the hypothetical impact of vaccine dissemination on vaccine-preventable cases and deaths. That is, it was assumed that prevalence rates and death rates from these diseases observed in 1960 would have prevailed annually through 2015 in the absence of vaccines, thus reflecting the independent effect of growing population size on disease prevalence. Since vaccines were introduced in different years beginning in 1963, only those years from vaccine introduction to 2015 were used in each case (for example, the prevalence rate of poliomyelitis observed in 1960 was 36,110 cases per 3.04 million people in the U.S., see Table 1, this rate was assumed to apply annually to the observed U.S. population from 1963 through 2015). Cases and deaths were then summed between year of vaccine introduction and 2015 as an estimate of the cumulative health impactof the vaccine. Vaccine coverage was assumed to be 95 percent.

    6 Herpes zoster will not be included in this analysis because of complications associated with assessing its prevalence and the effectiveness of the WI-38 based vaccine.

    Table 1. Viral diseases treated with vaccines prepared using the WI-38 cell strain or its derivatives, year each vaccine was introduced, annual cases, pre-vaccine annual deaths, and cases and deaths averted or treated from each disease from year of introduction to 2015 (with 95% coverage).
    DiseaseYear
    Introduced
    Vaccine
    annual cases
    (U.S., 1960)
    Pre-vaccine
    annual deaths
    (U.S.)
    Cases averted
    or treated with
    95% coverage
    Deaths
    averted with
    95% coverage
    Poliomyelitis196336,1105,8652,547,045413,692
    Measles1969-70530,21744034,137,12928,329
    Mumps1967162,3443910,792,3172,593
    Rubella196947,745173,073,9811,095
    Varicella
    (chicken pox)
    1995-964,085,120107133,691,8073,436
    Hepatitis A1996117,3331373,674,9884,291
    Rabies#197418,000-10,000,000-
    Adenovirus *196411,138-375,619-
    Total (U.S.)5,017,0076,603198,292,887453,435
    Estimates of cases and deaths were obtained from the following sources:
    http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/pinkbook/downloads/appendices/G/cases-deaths.pdf
    Roush SW, Murphy TV (2007) JAMA 298: 2155-2163.
    http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=209448.
    Population estimates were obtained from the following sources:
    http://www.census.gov/population/international/data/worldpop/table_population.php.
    http://www.census.gov/prod/cen1990/cph2/cph-2-1-1.pdf.
    # The majority of cases of rabies treated with the WI-38 based vaccine occurred after the disease appeared rather than as a preventative measure (http://www.rightdiagnosis.com/r/rabies/stats.htm). The value of the WI-38 based rabies vaccine was that it eliminated the painful side effects associated with the previous vaccine made in neuronal tissue.
    * The adenovirus was developed in 1966 and first administered to military personnel in 1971. Estimates provided here assume .04% of the total U.S. population served in the armed forces annually; prevalence of adenovirus among military forces is 1.1% annually; and these calculations apply only for the years 1971-1999 and 2011-2016 when the WI-38 related adenovirus vaccine was administered.
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    3. Results

    The estimated total number of cases of poliomyelitis, measles, mumps, rubella, varicella, adenovirus, rabies, and hepatitis A averted or treated in the U.S. alone due to the introduction of vaccines developed with the WI-38 cell strain, is 198 million (Table 1). The estimated total number of deaths averted from these same diseases in the U.S. is approximately 450,000. In 1964-65, rubella caused 11,000 fetal deaths in the U.S. [22]. This implies that the rubella vaccine introduced in 1969 averted approximately 633,000 fetal deaths in the U.S. since it was first introduced.

    Although it is not possible to generate precise global estimates of cases and deaths averted due to the use of vaccines based exclusively on the WI-38 cell strain or its derivatives, a rough approximation may be obtained by assuming (very conservatively) 7 that the prevalence rates and death rates for these diseases observed in the U.S. apply equally to the entire human population. Under this assumption, the estimated total number of cases of poliomyelitis, measles, mumps, rubella, varicella, adenovirus, rabies and hepatitis A averted or treated due to the introduction of vaccines developed with the WI-38 cell strain and its derivatives, is about 4.5 billion globally (720 million in Africa; 387 million in Latin America and the Caribbean; 2.7 billion in Asia; and 455 million in Europe). 8 The estimated total number of deaths averted from these same diseases is about 10.3 million (1.6 million in Africa; 886 thousand in Latin America and the Caribbean; 6.2 million in Asia; and 1.0 million in Europe).

    7 The true number of cases and deaths averted is likely to be orders of magnitude greater than this because prevalence and death rates from these diseases are typically higher in developing nations, but these numbers are sufficient to illustrate the minimum health impact of these vaccines.

    8 Estimated by taking the fractional proportion of the total population from each of these regions from population estimates provided by the Population Reference Bureau (prb.org), and assuming that the prevalence rates and death rates for these diseases observed in the U.S., apply equally to the entire human population. While it is possible to use the fractional proportion of the total population contained within each of these regions annually since the early 1960s for such an estimate, we do not want to give a false sense of precision by doing so. As noted above, the prevalence and death rates from the U.S. are likely to be lower than that observed in developing nations where most of the global population resides, so the estimates provided here are likely to be very conservative. While all nations are represented in the global estimates, not all nations are represented by the regional data provided here.


    4. Discussion

    The history of public health is filled with success stories, but each success has met with significant challenges. In the case of Edward Jenner's work on a vaccine for smallpox, he was first attacked and ridiculed for his ideas and, of course, later vindicated. The modern rise of the anti-vaccine movement accelerated with a manuscript published in 1998 claiming that the MMR vaccine caused developmental disorders in children [23]. Even though that article was retracted by the journal that published it [24], evidence suggests that a significant and dangerously high percentage of the U.S. population either delays or refuses vaccinations for their children within the first 24 months of life [25].

    The fact remains that humanity now experiences longer and healthier lives than at any time in history, in large measure, because of the development and dissemination of vaccines that prevent most of the fatal and disabling communicable diseases that plagued our species for millennia. There is no medication, lifestyle change, public health innovation, or medical procedure ever developed that has even come close to the life-saving, life-extending, and primary prevention benefits associated with vaccines. The initial primary beneficiaries of vaccine development and dissemination have been children, and these benefits have accrued for every generation since vaccines first became widely available. In fact, as those saved from dying early in life live into their working years, national economies also benefit as linkages between the health and wealth of nations has been well established [26].

    Each discovery or breakthrough in the chain of events that led to vaccines becoming a public health success story may have occurred eventually. However, timing is important, and there is no question that when the WI-38 cell strain became available in 1962, it was fortuitously discovered at the same time that the primary monkey kidney cells used to manufacture the poliomyelitis vaccines were found to have been contaminated. Thus, the use of WI-38 represented a catalyst for subsequent vaccine development. In fact, the success of the research that resulted in the development of WI-38 in 1962 occurred when federal research funds were not prohibited for use in studying the biology of tissue derived from aborted human fetuses. However, during several subsequent presidential administrations, that prohibition was enforced. If that prohibition had been in effect in 1962, it is unlikely that in the subsequent 55 years, there would be billions of people who benefitted from virus vaccines produced in WI-38.

    A delay of even one year in the development of an uncontaminated cell strain for vaccine development would have cost humanity millions of lives and countless more cases of vaccine preventable morbidity. Today, a majority of the world's 7.5 billion people have been vaccinated against viral diseases with the use of the WI-38 cell strain and its derivatives. Nearly everyone born in the developed world since 1962 received at least one vaccine manufactured with the WI-38 cell strain, along with a growing proportion of the population in developing nations. WI-38 and its derivatives are still in use for producing many viral vaccines that are distributed worldwide today.

    Billions of people are alive today who would otherwise have either died in childhood or who would have been crippled or disabled by vaccine preventable diseases. The World Health Organization estimates that all immunizations now available avert about 2.5 million deaths among children every year, but many more lives could still be saved if vaccines were universally available. In fact, it is ironic that the rubella vaccine (which is produced in theWI-38 cell strain that originated from an aborted human fetus) is vigorously opposed by anti-choice advocates, even though this vaccine prevented over 633,000 miscarriages in the U.S. alone, and countless more across the globe, and it has prevented tens of millions of clinical health issues in children (e.g., encephalitis, autism, deafness, diabetes, etc.) linked to congenital rubella syndrome [27].

    Given the extent to which vaccines were made available to today's generation of reproducing adults when they were children, it is likely that most of the people involved in today's anti-vaccination movement have improved health (or are alive today) because their parents and pediatricians had the foresight to administer vaccines to them when they were young. The same health benefits are being denied to their children for reasons that are indefensible from a public health perspective. The anti-vaccination movement endangers the health of an entire generation of children. Its potential to negatively influence national economies is evident, and it threatens a 150-year old public health success story. The signing of Senate Bill No. 277 (Public Health: Vaccinations) by Governor Brown in California strikes the state's personal exemption for immunizations that was being used by some to allow their children to attend school without being vaccinated [28]. This represents a powerful new reaffirmation that vaccinations save lives.

    It is possible that the anti-vaccination movement has arisen among younger generations, in part, because they cannot bear witness to the tragedy of disfigurement, morbidity, and death caused by viral and bacterial diseases. However, as the 2015 outbreak of measles in California reminds us, the diseases our ancestors feared so much have not gone away—they lay dormant in many parts of the world where they resurface on occasion as a constant reminder of their existence. They will return if we lower our guard and allow herd immunity to drop below threshold levels. So as a potent reminder of their devastating impact, we provide images of what poliomyelitis, measles, and smallpox (three examples among many) does to human bodies. The anti-vaccination movement is a wake-up call to reinforce defenses against the diseases that plagued humanity from the beginning.

    Figure 1. Measles
    Figure 2. Poliomyelitis
    Figure 3. Smallpox

    Acknowledgments

    Support for Dr. Olshansky was provided, in part, by the MacArthur Foundation Research Network on an Aging Society.


    Conflict of Interest

    All authors declare no conflicts of interest in this paper.


    [1] Crabtree GW, Dresselhaus MS, Buchanan MV (2004) The Hydrogen Economy. Phys Today 57: 39-44. doi: 10.1063/1.1878333
    [2] Zuttel A, Borgschulte A, Schlapbach L (2008) Hydrogen as a Future Energy Carrier. Winheim: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co.
    [3] Riis T, Hagen EF, Vie PJS, et al. (2006) Hydrogen Production R&D. Paris: IEA.
    [4] Turner JA (2004) Sustainable Hydrogen Production. Science 305: 972-974. doi: 10.1126/science.1103197
    [5] Merle G, Wessling M, Nijmeijer K (2011) Anion exchange membranes for alkaline fuel cells: A review. J Membrane Sci 377: 1-35. doi: 10.1016/j.memsci.2011.04.043
    [6] Giddey S, Badwal SPS, Kulkarni A, et al. (2012) A comprehensive review of direct carbon fuel cell technology. Prog Energy Combust 38: 360-399. doi: 10.1016/j.pecs.2012.01.003
    [7] Antolini E, Perez J (2011) The use of rare earth-based materials in low-temperature fuel cells. Int J Hydrogen Energy 36: 15752-15765. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.08.104
    [8] Stambouli AB, Traversa E (2002) Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs): a review of an environmentally clean and efficient source of energy. Renew Sust Energy Rev 6: 433-455. doi: 10.1016/S1364-0321(02)00014-X
    [9] Riis T, Sandrock G, Ulleberg O, et al. (2006) Hydrogen Storage R&D. Paris: IEA.
    [10] Elam CC, Padró CEG, Sandrock G, et al. (2003) Realizing the hydrogen future: the International Energy Agency's efforts to advance hydrogen energy technologies. Int J Hydrogen Energy 28: 601-607. doi: 10.1016/S0360-3199(02)00147-7
    [11] MHCoE For a description of the Metal Hydride Center of Excellence. Available from: http://www.sandia.gov/MHCoE.
    [12] CHCoE For a description of the Chemical Hydride Center of Excellence. Available from: http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/annual_progress10_storage.html.
    [13] HSCoE For a description of the Hydrogen Sorption Center of Excellence. Available from: http://www.nrel.gov/basic_sciences/carbon_based_hydrogen_center.cfm#hsce.
    [14] Klebanoff L (2013) Hydrogen Storage Technology: Materials and Applications. United States of America: CRC press.
    [15] US-DOE (2010) Hydrogen and Fuel Cells: Current Technology of Hydrogen Storage. Available from: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/storage/current_technology.html.
    [16] Felderhoff M, Weidenthaler C, von Helmolt R, et al. (2007) Hydrogen storage: the remaining scientific and technological challenges. Phys Chem Chem Phys 9: 2643-2653. doi: 10.1039/b701563c
    [17] Graetz J (2009) New approaches to hydrogen storage. Chem Soc Rev 38: 73-82. doi: 10.1039/B718842K
    [18] van den Berg AWC, Arean CO (2008) Materials for hydrogen storage: current research trends and perspectives. Chem Commun 14: 668-681.
    [19] Klebanoff LE, Keller JO (2013) 5 Years of hydrogen storage research in the U.S. DOE Metal Hydride Center of Excellence (MHCoE). Int J Hydrogen Energ 38: 4533-4576.
    [20] Lu Z-H, Xu Q (2012) Recent Progress in Boron and Nitrogen based Chemical Hydrogen Storage. Functional Materials Letters 05.
    [21] Michel KJ, Ozoliņš V (2013) Recent advances in the theory of hydrogen storage in complex metal hydrides. MRS Bulletin 38: 462-472. doi: 10.1557/mrs.2013.130
    [22] Varin RA, Czujiko T, Wronski ZS (2009) Nanomaterials for solid state hydrogen storage. Cleveland: Springer.
    [23] Grochala W, Edwards PP (2004) Thermal Decomposition of the Non-Interstitial Hydrides for the Storage and Production of Hydrogen. Chem Rev 104: 1283-1316. doi: 10.1021/cr030691s
    [24] Eremets MI, Trojan IA, Medvedev SA, et al. (2008) Superconductivity in Hydrogen Dominant Materials: Silane. Science 319: 1506-1509. doi: 10.1126/science.1153282
    [25] Scheler T, Degtyareva O, Marqués M, et al. (2011) Synthesis and properties of platinum hydride. Phys Rev B 83: 214106. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevB.83.214106
    [26] Gao G, Wang H, Zhu L, et al. (2011) Pressure-Induced Formation of Noble Metal Hydrides. J Phys Chem C 116: 1995-2000.
    [27] Driessen A, Sanger P, Hemmes H, et al. (1990) Metal hydride formation at pressures up to 1 Mbar. J Physics: Condensed Matter 2: 9797. doi: 10.1088/0953-8984/2/49/007
    [28] Sandrock G (1999) A panoramic overview of hydrogen storage alloys from a gas reaction point of view. J Alloys Compounds 293-295: 877-888.
    [29] Bogdanovi B, Schwickardi M (1997) Ti-doped alkali metal aluminium hydrides as potential novel reversible hydrogen storage materials. J Alloy Compd 253-254: 1-9.
    [30] Bogdanović B, Brand RA, Marjanović A, et al. (2000) Metal-doped sodium aluminium hydrides as potential new hydrogen storage materials. J Alloy Compd 302: 36-58. doi: 10.1016/S0925-8388(99)00663-5
    [31] Eberle U, Arnold G, von Helmolt R (2006) Hydrogen storage in metal-hydrogen systems and their derivatives. J Power Sources 154: 456-460. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2005.10.050
    [32] Sandrock G, Gross K, Thomas G (2002) Effect of Ti-catalyst content on the reversible hydrogen storage properties of the sodium alanates. J Alloy Compd 339: 299-308. doi: 10.1016/S0925-8388(01)02014-X
    [33] Zaluska A, Zaluski L, Ström-Olsen JO (2000) Sodium alanates for reversible hydrogen storage. J Allos Compd 298: 125-134. doi: 10.1016/S0925-8388(99)00666-0
    [34] Gross KJ, Sandrock G, Thomas GJ (2002) Dynamic in situ X-ray diffraction of catalyzed alanates. J Alloy Compd 330-332: 691-695.
    [35] Bellosta von Colbe JM, Felderhoff M, Bogdanovic B, et al. (2005) One-step direct synthesis of a Ti-doped sodium alanate hydrogen storage material. Chem Commun 4732-4734.
    [36] Li L, Xu C, Chen C, et al. (2013) Sodium alanate system for efficient hydrogen storage. Int J Hydrogen Energy 38: 8798-8812. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.04.109
    [37] NIST. Availabe from: http://webbook.nist.gov ed.
    [38] Zaluska A, Zaluski L, Srom-Olsen JO, et al. (1999) Method for inducing hydrogen desorption from a metal hydride. In: 5882623, Patent. United States of America.
    [39] Zaluska A, Zaluski L, Strm-Olsen JO (1999) Nanocrystalline magnesium for hydrogen storage. J Alloy Compd 288: 217-225. doi: 10.1016/S0925-8388(99)00073-0
    [40] Varin RA, Czujko T, Wronski ZS, et al. (2009) Nanomaterials for hydrogen storage produced by ball milling. Can Metall Quart 48: 11-26. doi: 10.1179/cmq.2009.48.1.11
    [41] Fichtner M (2009) Properties of nanoscale metal hydrides. Nanotechnology 20: 204009. doi: 10.1088/0957-4484/20/20/204009
    [42] Bérubé V, Radtke G, Dresselhaus M, et al. (2007) Size effects on the hydrogen storage properties of nanostructured metal hydrides: A review. Int J Energy Res 31: 637-663. doi: 10.1002/er.1284
    [43] Chen PX, Z.; Luo, J.; Lin, J.; Tan, K. L. (2002) Interaction of hydrogen with metal nitrides and imides. Nature 420: 302-304. doi: 10.1038/nature01210
    [44] Hu YH, Ruckenstein E (2003) Ultrafast Reaction between LiH and NH3 during H2 Storage in Li3N. J Phys Chem A 107: 9737-9739. doi: 10.1021/jp036257b
    [45] Ichikawa T, Hanada N, Isobe S, et al. (2004) Mechanism of Novel Reaction from LiNH2 and LiH to Li2NH and H2 as a Promising Hydrogen Storage System. J Phys Chem B 108: 7887-7892. doi: 10.1021/jp049968y
    [46] Lohstroh W, Fichtner M (2007) Reaction steps in the Li-Mg-N-H hydrogen storage system. J Alloy Compd 446-447: 332-335.
    [47] Hu YH, Ruckenstein E (2004) Highly Effective Li2O/Li3N with Ultrafast Kinetics for H2 Storage. Ind Eng Chem Res 43: 2464-2467. doi: 10.1021/ie049947q
    [48] Zuttel A, Wenger P, Rentsch S, et al. (2003) LiBH4 a new hydrogen storage material. J Power Sources 118: 1-7. doi: 10.1016/S0378-7753(03)00054-5
    [49] Mosegaard L, Moller B, Jorgensen J-E, et al. (2008) Reactivity of LiBH4: In Situ Synchrotron Radiation Powder X-ray Diffraction Study. J Phys Chem C 112: 1299-1303.
    [50] Yu XB, Grant DM, Walker GS (2009) Dehydrogenation of LiBH4 Destabilized with Various Oxides. J Phys Chem C 113: 17945-17949. doi: 10.1021/jp906519p
    [51] Maekawa H, Matsuo M, Takamura H, et al. (2009) Halide-Stabilized LiBH4, a Room-Temperature Lithium Fast-Ion Conductor. J Am Chem Soc 131: 894-895. doi: 10.1021/ja807392k
    [52] Luo C, Wang H, Sun T, et al. (2012) Enhanced dehydrogenation properties of LiBH4 compositing with hydrogenated magnesium-rare earth compounds. Int J Hydrogen Energy 37: 13446-13451. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2012.06.114
    [53] Pendolino F (2011) “Boron Effect” on the Thermal Decomposition of Light Metal Borohydrides MBH4 (M = Li, Na, Ca). J Phys Chem C 116: 1390-1394.
    [54] Pendolino F (2013) Thermal study on decomposition of LiBH4 at non-isothermal and non-equilibrium conditions. J Thermal Analysis Calorimetry 112: 1207-1211. doi: 10.1007/s10973-012-2662-2
    [55] Gross AF, Vajo JJ, Van Atta SL, et al. (2008) Enhanced Hydrogen Storage Kinetics of LiBH4 in Nanoporous Carbon Scaffolds. J Phys Chem C 112: 5651-5657. doi: 10.1021/jp711066t
    [56] Xu J, Yu X, Ni J, et al. (2009) Enhanced catalytic dehydrogenation of LiBH4 by carbon-supported Pd nanoparticles. Dalton Transactions: 8386-8391.
    [57] Xu J, Yu X, Zou Z, et al. (2008) Enhanced dehydrogenation of LiBH4 catalyzed by carbon-supported Pt nanoparticles. Chem Commun 5740-5742.
    [58] Xu J, Qi Z, Cao J, et al. (2013) Reversible hydrogen desorption from LiBH4 catalyzed by graphene supported Pt nanoparticles. Dalton Transactions 42: 12926-12933
    [59] Luo W (2004) (LiNH2-MgH2): a viable hydrogen storage system. J Alloy Compd 381: 284-287. doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2004.03.119
    [60] Xiong Z, Wu G, Hu J, et al. (2004) Ternary Imides for Hydrogen Storage. Adv Mater 16: 1522-1525. doi: 10.1002/adma.200400571
    [61] Leng HY, Ichikawa T, Hino S, et al. (2004) New Metal-N-H System Composed of Mg(NH2)2 and LiH for Hydrogen Storage. J Phy Chem B 108: 8763-8765. doi: 10.1021/jp048002j
    [62] Nakamori Y, Kitahara G, Orimo S (2004) Synthesis and dehydriding studies of Mg-N-H systems. J Power Sources 138: 309-312. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2004.06.026
    [63] Nakamori Y, Kitahara G, Miwa K, et al. (2005) Reversible hydrogen-storage functions for mixtures of Li3N and Mg3N2. Appl Phys A 80: 1-3.
    [64] Dolci F, Weidner E, Hoelzel M, et al. (2010) In-situ neutron diffraction study of magnesium amide/lithium hydride stoichiometric mixtures with lithium hydride excess. Int J Hydrogen Energy 35: 5448-5453. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.03.030
    [65] Barison S, Agresti F, Lo Russo S, et al. (2008) A study of the LiNH2-MgH2 system for solid state hydrogen storage. J Alloy Compd 459: 343-347. doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2007.04.278
    [66] Shahi RR, Yadav TP, Shaz MA, et al. (2008) Effects of mechanical milling on desorption kinetics and phase transformation of LiNH2/MgH2 mixture. Int J Hydrogen Energy 33: 6188-6194. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2008.07.029
    [67] Liang C, Liu Y, Luo K, et al. (2010) Reaction Pathways Determined by Mechanical Milling Process for Dehydrogenation/Hydrogenation of the LiNH2/MgH2 System. Chemistry A European Journal 16: 693-702. doi: 10.1002/chem.200901967
    [68] Liu Y, Li B, Tu F, et al. (2011) Correlation between composition and hydrogen storage behaviors of the Li2NH-MgNH combination system. Dalton Transactions 40: 8179-8186. doi: 10.1039/c1dt10108k
    [69] Lu J, Choi YJ, Fang ZZ, et al. (2010) Effect of milling intensity on the formation of LiMgN from the dehydrogenation of LiNH2-MgH2 (1:1) mixture. J Power Sources 195: 1992-1997. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.10.032
    [70] Pottmaier D, Dolci F, Orlova M, et al. (2011) Hydrogen release and structural transformations in LiNH2-MgH2 systems. J Alloy Compd 509, Supplement 2: S719-S723.
    [71] Vajo JJ, Skeith SL, Mertens F (2005) Reversible Storage of Hydrogen in Destabilized LiBH4. J Phys Chem B 109: 3719-3722. doi: 10.1021/jp040769o
    [72] Bosenberg U, Doppiu S, Mosegaard L, et al. (2007) Hydrogen sorption properties of MgH2-LiBH4 composites. Acta Materialia 55: 3951-3958. doi: 10.1016/j.actamat.2007.03.010
    [73] Bosenberg U, Ravnsbk DB, Hagemann H, et al. (2010) Pressure and Temperature Influence on the Desorption Pathway of the LiBH4-MgH2 Composite System. J Phys Chem C 114: 15212-15217.
    [74] Nakagawa T, Ichikawa T, Hanada N, et al. (2007) Thermal analysis on the Li-Mg-B-H systems. J Alloy Compd 446-447: 306-309.
    [75] Shim J-H, Lim J-H, Rather S-u, et al. (2009) Effect of Hydrogen Back Pressure on Dehydrogenation Behavior of LiBH4-Based Reactive Hydride Composites. J Phys Chem Lett 1: 59-63.
    [76] Yang J, Sudik A, Wolverton C (2007) Destabilizing LiBH 4 with a Metal ( M ) Mg , Al , Ti , V , Cr , or Sc ) or Metal Hydride ( MH 2 ). J Phys Chem C 111: 19134-19140. doi: 10.1021/jp076434z
    [77] Pinkerton FE, Meyer MS, Meisner GP, et al. (2007) Phase Boundaries and Reversibility of LiBH 4 / MgH 2 Hydrogen Storage Material. J Phys Chem Lett C 111: 12881-12885. doi: 10.1021/jp0742867
    [78] Price TEC, Grant DM, Legrand V, et al. (2010) Enhanced kinetics for the LiBH4:MgH2 multi-component hydrogen storage system—The effects of stoichiometry and decomposition environment on cycling behaviour. Int J Hydrogen Energy 35: 4154-4161. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.02.082
    [79] Wan X, Markmaitree T, Osborn W, et al. (2008) Nanoengineering-Enabled Solid-State Hydrogen Uptake and Release in the LiBH4 Plus MgH2 System. J Phys Chem C 112: 18232-18243. doi: 10.1021/jp8033159
    [80] Price TEC, Grant DM, Telepeni I, et al. (2009) The decomposition pathways for LiBD4-MgD2 multicomponent systems investigated by in situ neutron diffraction. J Alloy Compd 472: 559-564. doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2008.05.030
    [81] Walker GS, Grant DM, Price TC, et al. (2009) High capacity multicomponent hydrogen storage materials: Investigation of the effect of stoichiometry and decomposition conditions on the cycling behaviour of LiBH4,ÄìMgH2. J Power Sources 194: 1128-1134. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.06.075
    [82] Yu XB, Grant DM, Walker GS (2006) A new dehydrogenation mechanism for reversible multicomponent borohydride systems--The role of Li-Mg alloys. Chem commun (Cambridge, England) 1: 3906-3908.
    [83] Dobbins T, NaraseGowda S, Butler LG (2012) Study of Morphological Changes in MgH2 Destabilized LiBH4 Systems Using Computed X-ray Microtomography. Materials 5: 1740-1751. doi: 10.3390/ma5101740
    [84] Barkhordarian G, Klassen T, Dornheim M, et al. (2007) Unexpected kinetic effect of MgB2 in reactive hydride composites containing complex borohydrides. J Alloy Compd 440: L18-L21. doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2006.09.048
    [85] COSY-network Complex Solid State Reaction for Energy Efficient Hydrogen Storage. Available from: www.cosy-net.eu.
    [86] Santos DMF, Sequeira CAC (2011) Sodium borohydride as a fuel for the future. Renew Sust Energy Rev 15: 3980-4001. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.018
    [87] Dinsdale AT (1991) SGTE Data for Pure Elements. CALPHAD 15: 317-425. doi: 10.1016/0364-5916(91)90030-N
    [88] Manchester FD (2000) Phase Diagrams of Binary Hydrogen Alloys. United State of America: ASM International.
    [89] George L, Saxena SK (2010) Structural stability of metal hydrides, alanates and borohydrides of alkali and alkali- earth elements: A review. Int J Hydrogen Energy 35: 5454-5470. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.03.078
    [90] Pottmaier D, Pinatel ER, Vitillo JG, et al. (2011) Structure and Thermodynamic Properties of the NaMgH3 Perovskite: A Comprehensive Study. Chem Mater 23: 2317-2326. doi: 10.1021/cm103204p
    [91] Barrico M, Paulmbo M, Pinatel E, et al. (2010) Thermodynamic Database for Hydrogen Storage Materials. Adv Sci Tech 72: 213-218. doi: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/AST.72.213
    [92] Stasinevich G, Egorenko A (1969) J Inorg Chem 13: 341-343.
    [93] Martelli P, Caputo R, Remhof A, et al. (2010) Stability and Decomposition of NaBH 4. The J Phys Chem C 114: 7173-7177.
    [94] Urgnani J, Torres F, Palumbo M, et al. (2008) Hydrogen release from solid state NaBH4. Int J Hydrogen Energy 33: 3111-3115. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2008.03.031
    [95] Mao JF, Yu XB, Guo ZP, et al. (2009) Enhanced hydrogen storage performances of NaBH4-MgH2 system. J Alloy Compd 479: 619-623. doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2009.01.012
    [96] Humphries TD, Kalantzopoulos GN, Llamas-Jansa I, et al. (2013) Reversible Hydrogenation Studies of NaBH4 Milled with Ni-Containing Additives. J Phys Chem C 117: 6060-6065. doi: 10.1021/jp312105w
    [97] Pendolino F, Mauron P, Borgschulte A, et al. (2009) Effect of Boron on the Activation Energy of the Decomposition of LiBH4. J Phys Chem C 113: 17231-17234. doi: 10.1021/jp902384v
    [98] Caputo R, Garroni S, Olid D, et al. (2010) Can Na2[B12H12] be a decomposition product of NaBH4? Phys Chem Chem Phys 12: 15093-15100.99. Her J-H, Zhou W, Stavila V, et al. (2009) Role of Cation Size on the Structural Behavior of the Alkali-Metal Dodecahydro-closo-Dodecaborates. J Phys Chem Lett C 113: 11187-11189. doi: 10.1021/jp904980m
    [99] 100. Friedrichs O, Remhof A, Hwang K-J, et al. (2010) Role of Li2B12H12 for the formation and decomposition of LiBH4. Chem Mater 22: 3265-3268. doi: 10.1021/cm100536a
    [100] 101. Her JH, Yousufuddin M, Zhou W, et al. (2008) Crystal structure of Li2B12H12: a possible intermediate species in the decomposition of LiBH4. Inorg Chem 47: 9757-9759. doi: 10.1021/ic801345h
    [101] 102. Hwang SJ, Bowman RC, Reiter JW, et al. (2008) NMR Confirmation for Formation of [B12H12]2- Complexes during Hydrogen Desorption from Metal Borohydrides. J Phys Chem C 112: 3164-3169.
    [102] 103. Minella CB, Pistidda C, Garroni S, et al. (2013) Ca(BH4)2 + MgH2: Desorption Reaction and Role of Mg on Its Reversibility. J Phys Chem C 117: 3846-3852. doi: 10.1021/jp312271s
    [103] 104. Yan Y, Remhof A, Rentsch D, et al. (2013) Is Y2(B12H12)3 the main intermediate in the decomposition process of Y(BH4)3? Chem Commun 49: 5234-5236. doi: 10.1039/c3cc41184b
    [104] 105. Mao J, Guo Z, Yu X, et al. (2013) Combined effects of hydrogen back-pressure and NbF5 addition on the dehydrogenation and rehydrogenation kinetics of the LiBH4-MgH2 composite system. Int J Hydrogen Energy 38: 3650-3660. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2012.12.106
    [105] 106. Yan Y, Li H-W, Maekawa H, et al. (2011) Formation of Intermediate Compound Li2B12H12 during the Dehydrogenation Process of the LiBH4-MgH2 System. J Phys Chem C 115: 19419-19423. doi: 10.1021/jp205450c
    [106] 107. Garroni S, Milanese C, Pottmaier D, et al. (2011) Experimental Evidence of Na2[B12H12] and Na Formation in the Desorption Pathway of the 2NaBH4 + MgH2 System. J Phys Chem C 115: 16664-16671. doi: 10.1021/jp202341j
    [107] 108. Pottmaier D, Pistidda C, Groppo E, et al. (2011) Dehydrogenation reactions of 2NaBH4 + MgH2 system. Int J Hydrogen Energy 36: 7891-7896. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.01.059
    [108] 109. Pistidda C, Garroni S, Minella CB, et al. (2010) Pressure Effect on the 2NaH + MgB2 Hydrogen Absorption Reaction. J Phys Chem C 114: 21816-21823. doi: 10.1021/jp107363q
    [109] 110. Garroni S, Milanese C, Girella A, et al. (2010) Sorption properties of NaBH4/MH2 (M = Mg, Ti) powder systems. Int J Hydrogen Energy 35: 5434-5441. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.03.004
    [110] 111. Shi L, Gi Y, Qian T, et al. (2004) Synthesis of ultrafine superconducting MgB2 by a convenient solid-state reaction route. Physica C 405: 271-274. doi: 10.1016/j.physc.2004.02.013
    [111] 112. Varin RA, Chiu C, Wronski ZS (2008) Mechano-chemical activation synthesis (MCAS) of disordered Mg(BH4)2 using NaBH 4. J Alloy Compd 462: 201-208. doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2007.07.110
    [112] 113. Varin Ra, Czujko T, Chiu C, et al. (2009) Synthesis of nanocomposite hydrides for solid-state hydrogen storage by controlled mechanical milling techniques. J Alloy Compd 483: 252-255. doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2008.07.207
    [113] 114. Czujko T, Varin R, Wronski Z, et al. (2007) Synthesis and hydrogen desorption properties of nanocomposite magnesium hydride with sodium borohydride (MgH2+NaBH4). J Alloy Compd 427: 291-299. doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2006.03.020
    [114] 115. Czujiko T, Varin R, Zaranski Z, et al. (2010) The dehydrogenation process of destabilized NaBH4-MgH2 solid state hydride composites. Arch Metall Mater 55: 539-552.
    [115] 116. Garroni S, Pistidda C, Brunelli M, et al. (2009) Hydrogen desorption mechanism of 2NaBH4+MgH2 composite prepared by high-energy ball milling. Scripta Materialia 60: 1129-1132. doi: 10.1016/j.scriptamat.2009.02.059
    [116] 117. Caputo R, Garroni S, Olid D, et al. (2010) Can Na2[B12H12] be a decomposition product of NaBH4? Phys Chem Chem Phys 12: 15093-15100. doi: 10.1039/c0cp00877j
    [117] 118. Garroni S, Milanese C, Girella A, et al. (2010) Sorption properties of NaBH4/MH2 (M=Mg, Ti) powder systems. Int J Hydrogen Energy 35: 5434-5441. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.03.004
    [118] 119. Pottmaier D, Garroni S, Barò MD, et al. (2010) Hydrogen Desorption Reactions of the Na-Mg-B-H System. Adv Sci Tech72: 164-169. doi: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/AST.72.164
    [119] 120.Pottmaier D, Garroni S, Brunelli M, et al. (2010) NaBX4-MgX2 Composites (X= D,H) Investigated by In situ Neutron Diffraction. Mater Res Soc Symp Proc 1262: W03-04.
    [120] 121. Nwakwuo CC, Pistidda C, Dornheim M, et al. (2012) Microstructural study of hydrogen desorption in 2NaBH4 + MgH2 reactive hydride composite. Int J Hydrogen Energy 37: 2382-2387. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.10.070
    [121] 122. Mao J, Guo Z, Yu X, et al. (2011) Improved Hydrogen Storage Properties of NaBH4 Destabilized by CaH2 and Ca(BH4)2. J Phys Chem C 115: 9283-9290. doi: 10.1021/jp2020319
    [122] 123. Franco F, Baricco M, Chierotti MR, et al. (2013) Coupling Solid-State NMR with GIPAW ab Initio Calculations in Metal Hydrides and Borohydrides. J Phys Chem C 117: 9991-9998. doi: 10.1021/jp3126895
    [123] 124. Shane DT, Corey RL, Bowman Jr RC, et al. (2009) NMR studies of the hydrogen storage compound NaMgH3. J Phys Chem C 113: 18414-18419. doi: 10.1021/jp906414q
    [124] 125. Huang Z, Eagles M, Porter S, et al. (2013) Thermolysis and solid state NMR studies of NaB3H8, NH3B3H7, and NH4B3H8. Dalton Transactions 42: 701-708. doi: 10.1039/C2DT31365K
    [125] 126. Çakır D, de Wijs GA, Brocks G (2011) Native Defects and the Dehydrogenation of NaBH4. J Phys Chem C 115: 24429-24434. doi: 10.1021/jp208642g
    [126] 127. Pistidda C, Barkhordarian G, Rzeszutek A, et al. (2011) Activation of the reactive hydride composite 2NaBH4+MgH2. Scripta Materialia 64: 1035-1038. doi: 10.1016/j.scriptamat.2011.02.017
    [127] 128. Kato S, Borgschulte A, Bielmann M, et al. (2012) Interface reactions and stability of a hydride composite (NaBH4 + MgH2). Phys Chem Chem Phys 14: 8360-8368. doi: 10.1039/c2cp23491b
    [128] 129. Pistidda C, Napolitano E, Pottmaier D, et al. (2013) Structural study of a new B-rich phase obtained by partial hydrogenation of 2NaH + MgB2. Int J Hydrogen Energy 38: 10479-10484. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.06.025
    [129] 130. Milanese C, Garroni S, Girella A, et al. (2011) Thermodynamic and Kinetic Investigations on Pure and Doped NaBH4-MgH2 System. J Phys Chem C 115: 3151-3162. doi: 10.1021/jp109392e
    [130] 131. Saldan I, Gosalawit-Utke R, Pistidda C, et al. (2012) Influence of Stoichiometry on the Hydrogen Sorption Behavior in the LiF-MgB2 System. J Phys Chem C 116: 7010-7015. doi: 10.1021/jp212322u
    [131] 132. Christian M, Aguey-Zinsou K-F (2013) Synthesis of core-shell NaBH4@M (M = Co, Cu, Fe, Ni, Sn) nanoparticles leading to various morphologies and hydrogen storage properties. Chem Commun 49: 6794-6796. doi: 10.1039/c3cc42815j
    [132] 133. Mulas G, Campesi R, Garroni S, et al. (2012) Hydrogen storage in 2NaBH4+MgH2 mixtures: Destabilization by additives and nanoconfinement. J Alloy Compd 536, Supplement 1: S236-S240.
    [133] 134. Peru F, Garroni S, Campesi R, et al. (2013) Ammonia-free infiltration of NaBH4 into highly-ordered mesoporous silica and carbon matrices for hydrogen storage. J Alloy Compd 580, Supplement 1: S309-S312.
    [134] 135. Bardhan R, Hedges LO, Pint CL, et al. (2013) Uncovering the intrinsic size dependence of hydriding phase transformations in nanocrystals. Nat Mater advance online publication.
    [135] 136. Schlesinger HI, Sanderson RT, Burg AB (1940) Metallo Borohydrides. I. Aluminum Borohydride. J Am Chem Soc 62: 3421-3425.
    [136] 137. Schlesinger HI, Brown HC (1940) Metallo Borohydrides. III. Lithium Borohydride. J Am Chem Soc 62: 3429-3435. doi: 10.1021/ja01869a039
    [137] 138. Schlesinger HI, Brown HC, Hoekstra HR, et al. (1953) Reactions of Diborane with Alkali Metal Hydrides and Their Addition Compounds. New Syntheses of Borohydrides. Sodium and Potassium Borohydrides1. J Am Chem Soc 75: 199-204.
    [138] 139. Schlesinger HI, Brown HC, Abraham B, et al. (1953) New Developments in the Chemistry of Diborane and the Borohydrides. I. General Summary1. J Am Chem Soc 75: 186-190.
    [139] 140. Miwa K, Aoki M, Noritake T, et al. (2006) Correlation between thermodynamic staibilties of metal borohydrides and cation electronegavities: First principles calculations and experiments. Phys Rev B 74: 075110. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevB.74.075110
    [140] 141. Nakamori Y, Li H, Kikuchi K, et al. (2007) Thermodynamical stabilities of metal-borohydrides. J Alloy Compd 447: 296-300.
    [141] 142. Hu J, Kwak JH, Zhenguo Y, et al. (2009) Direct observation of ion exchange in mechanism activated LiH+MgB2 system using ultrahigh field nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Appl Phys Lett 94: 05. doi: 10.1063/1.3110966
    [142] 143. Li H-W, Matsunaga T, Yan Y, et al. (2010) Nanostructure-induced hydrogenation of layered compound MgB2. J Alloy Compd 505: 654-656. doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2010.06.101
    [143] 144. Pistidda C, Garroni S, Dolci F, et al. (2010) Synthesis of amorphous Mg(BH4)2 from MgB2 and H2 at room temperature. J Alloy Compd 508: 212-215. doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2010.07.226
    [144] 145. Barkhordarian G, Jensen TR, Doppiu S, et al. (2008) Formation of Ca(BH4)2 from Hydrogenation of CaH2+MgB2 Composite. J Phys Chem C 112: 2743-2749.
    [145] 146. Nwakwuo CC, Pistidda C, Dornheim M, et al. (2011) Microstructural analysis of hydrogen absorption in 2NaH+MgB2. Scripta Materialia 64: 351-354. doi: 10.1016/j.scriptamat.2010.10.034
    [146] 147. Garroni S, Minella CB, Pottmaier D, et al. (2013) Mechanochemical synthesis of NaBH4 starting from NaH-MgB2 reactive hydride composite system. Int J Hydrogen Energy 38: 2363-2369. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2012.11.136
    [147] 148. Nwakwuo CC, Hutchison JL, Sykes JM (2012) Hydrogen sorption in 3NaH+MgB2/2NaBH4+NaMgH3 composite. Scripta Materialia 66: 175-177. doi: 10.1016/j.scriptamat.2011.10.035
    [148] 149. Wang H, Zhang J, Liu JW, et al. (2013) Catalysis and hydrolysis properties of perovskite hydride NaMgH3. J Alloy Compd 580, Supplement 1: S197-S201.
    [149] 150. Rafi ud d, Xuanhui Q, Zahid GH, et al. (2014) Improved hydrogen storage performances of MgH2-NaAlH4 system catalyzed by TiO2 nanoparticles. J Alloy Compd 604: 317-324. doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2014.03.150
    [150] 151. Milošević S, Milanović I, Mamula BP, et al. (2013) Hydrogen desorption properties of MgH2 catalysed with NaNH2. Int J Hydrogen Energy 38: 12223-12229. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.06.083
    [151] 152. Li Y, Fang F, Song Y, et al. (2013) Hydrogen storage of a novel combined system of LiNH2-NaMgH3: synergistic effects of in situ formed alkali and alkaline-earth metal hydrides. Dalton Transactions 42: 1810-1819. doi: 10.1039/C2DT31923C
  • Reader Comments
  • © 2015 the Author(s), licensee AIMS Press. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)
通讯作者: 陈斌, bchen63@163.com
  • 1. 

    沈阳化工大学材料科学与工程学院 沈阳 110142

  1. 本站搜索
  2. 百度学术搜索
  3. 万方数据库搜索
  4. CNKI搜索

Metrics

Article views(8098) PDF downloads(1097) Cited by(6)

Article outline

Figures and Tables

Figures(2)  /  Tables(3)

Other Articles By Authors

/

DownLoad:  Full-Size Img  PowerPoint
Return
Return

Catalog