The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has disrupted society and negatively impacted mental health. Various psychosocial risk factors have been exacerbated during the pandemic, leading to the worsening of psychological distress. Specifically, a need for structure, loneliness, concerns about body image and social media use are risk factors previously implicated in poor mental health. The current study examines how these risk factors are associated with mental health outcomes (i.e., social anxiety, depressive and disordered eating symptoms) during the COVID-19 pandemic (January–March 2021). A total of 239 participants were recruited (average age = 24.74, 79% female, 68% White). The results revealed that a need for structure, loneliness and social media use were positively associated with social anxiety. In addition, loneliness, negative concerns about body image and social media use were significantly related to disordered eating and depressive symptoms. Lastly, when examined all together, the overall model for risk factors predicting mental health outcomes was significant: Wilks' Λ = 0.464, F(12, 608.814) = 17.081, p < 0.001. Loneliness and social media use were consistently associated with all psychological symptoms. These results emphasize the need for interventions for social anxiety, depressive and disordered eating symptoms that encourage structured daily activities, social connection, positive perception of oneself and mindful social media use.
Citation: Carlee Bellapigna, Zornitsa Kalibatseva. Psychosocial risk factors associated with social anxiety, depressive and disordered eating symptoms during COVID-19[J]. AIMS Public Health, 2023, 10(1): 18-34. doi: 10.3934/publichealth.2023003
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The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has disrupted society and negatively impacted mental health. Various psychosocial risk factors have been exacerbated during the pandemic, leading to the worsening of psychological distress. Specifically, a need for structure, loneliness, concerns about body image and social media use are risk factors previously implicated in poor mental health. The current study examines how these risk factors are associated with mental health outcomes (i.e., social anxiety, depressive and disordered eating symptoms) during the COVID-19 pandemic (January–March 2021). A total of 239 participants were recruited (average age = 24.74, 79% female, 68% White). The results revealed that a need for structure, loneliness and social media use were positively associated with social anxiety. In addition, loneliness, negative concerns about body image and social media use were significantly related to disordered eating and depressive symptoms. Lastly, when examined all together, the overall model for risk factors predicting mental health outcomes was significant: Wilks' Λ = 0.464, F(12, 608.814) = 17.081, p < 0.001. Loneliness and social media use were consistently associated with all psychological symptoms. These results emphasize the need for interventions for social anxiety, depressive and disordered eating symptoms that encourage structured daily activities, social connection, positive perception of oneself and mindful social media use.
In China, alpine meadow is mainly distributed on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and it covers an area of
It has been proposed that possible causes of alpine meadow degradation are global warming, irrational utilization (such as blind reclamation of grassland, road construction, mining, gold and sand collection, gathering medicinal herbs), overgrazing, rodent damage and poaching [4,6,7,8,9]. However, there still lack of sufficient evidence to identify the underlying causes of leading alpine meadows to degrade [10].
From the restoration point of view, various strategies have been proposed and experimented [7,9,11,12,13]. These strategies include: (ⅰ) Meliorating the degraded alpine meadow through scarifying, reseeding, fertilizing, irrigating, ruderal controlling; (ⅱ) Adopting a new grazing system, such as graze prohibiting, seasonal grazing, determining amount of livestock according to grass yield; (ⅲ) Rodents control and protecting their natural enemies; (ⅳ) In winter, providing livestock with supplementary food and building plastic greenhouse shelters to protect livestock; and (ⅴ) Ecological migration. Restoration practices showed that most of these strategies are effective for a short time interval, while the long-term efficiency of any strategy has not been evaluated.
Mathematical modelling has been recognized to be an inexpensive and powerful tool in ecological and biological studies. However, only limited modeling exercises [14] have been conducted in studying the dynamics of an alpine meadow ecosystem. In [14], Chang et al. investigated the relations between grass, plateau pika (Ochotona curzoniae) and eagle through a mathematical model. In this work, we formulate a mathematical model based on the relations between forage grass, rodent, livestock and raptor. Model analysis helps us identify the causes of alpine meadow degradation and evaluate the efficiency of restoration strategies.
We organize the rest of this paper as follows. In Section 2, we present our model and carry out related mathematical analysis. We then analyze the causes of alpine meadow degradation in Section 3 and evaluate the efficiency of restoration strategies in Section 4. Our conclusion is provided in Section 5.
In brief, the vegetation of alpine meadow falls into two categories, one is forage grass on which livestock feeds, the other one is ruderal that livestock does not eat. On a healthy alpine meadow, forage grass occupies a large proportion. Along with alpine meadow degradation, the proportion of forage grass decreases and the proportion of ruderal increases. The amount of forage grass affects the development of animal husbandry directly and also is an index of alpine meadow degradation. So only the biomass of forage grass is considered in our modeling exercise.
Tibetan sheep, yak, horse are the main livestock on the alpine meadow and they all have similar feeding behavior. For simplicity, we use only one variable to stand for the livestock. Along with alpine meadow degradation, the amount of rodents including plateau pika and plateau zokor (Eospalax baileyi) increases rapidly. The abundant rodents compete with livestock for herbage, destroy soil structure and accelerate the degradation of alpine meadows.
The predators of rodents are mainly raptors (e.g. Buteo hemilasius, Falco cherrug) and carnivorous mammals (e.g. Mustela allaica, Vulpes ferrilatus). On a degraded alpine meadow, rodents are abundant and their predators are scarce. This phenomenon leads to a conjecture: the decrease of rodent's predators results in the increase of rodents and promotes further degradation of alpine meadows. So the predator of rodent is involved in the modelling and is referred to as raptors.
Livestock and rodent consume forage grass and without forage grass, livestock and rodent would die out. Raptor hunts rodent and without rodent, raptor would become extinct. Suppose that forage grass grows logistically. Let
{x′=−d1x+αxy−μxzy′=ry(1−yK)−βxy−pyuz′=−d3z+ηxzu′=−d4u+qyu | (1) |
where
A≜d1α,B≜d3η,C≜d4qandθ≜1−βd3ηr=1−βBr<1 |
It is straightforward to obtain the following result concerning the existence of possible equilibria.
Theorem 2.1. For Model (1), there always exist the trivial equilibrium
Theorem 2.2. The trivial equilibrium
Proof. Here we only prove the locally stability of
[0αB−μB0−βC−rCK0−pCαη(C−A)μ0000qp(r−rCK−βB)00] |
Its eigenvalues are determined by the equation
λ4+rCKλ3+[αηB(C−A)+αβBC+qC(r−rCK−βB)]λ2+αηBCr(C−A)Kλ+αηBCq(C−A)(r−rCK−βB)=0 |
To apply the Routh-Hurwitz criterion [15], we find that
Δ1=rCK>0,Δ2=rC2K(αβB+rq−rqCK−βqB) |
Δ3=α2βηr2B2C3(C−A)K2,Δ4=αηqBC(C−A)(1−rCK−βB)Δ3 |
If
Remark 1. Based on Theorem 2.2, we can sketch stability regions in the
Theorem 2.3. If
Proof. Due to the similarity, we only prove that
{x′=αx(y−y∗)−μx(z−z∗)y′=−rKy(y−y∗)−βy(x−x∗)−py(u−u∗)z′=ηz(x−x∗)u′=qu(y−y∗) | (2) |
Consider the Liapunov function defined by
V=(x−x∗−x∗lnxx∗)+αβ(y−y∗−y∗lnyy∗)+μη(z−z∗−z∗lnzz∗)+αpβq(u−u∗−u∗lnuu∗) |
Then
{y=y∗x′=−μx(z−z∗)0=−β(x−x∗)−p(u−u∗)z′=ηz(x−x∗)u=constant | (3) |
From the third and the fifth equations of system (3), one finds that
Remark 2. Theorems 2.2 and 2.3 indicate Model (2) always admits a unique stable equilibrium. As model parameters vary, there may be stability switches from one stable equilibrium to another. To illustrate this phenomenon, we present three bifurcation diagrams in the
On both healthy alpine meadows and degraded alpine meadows, forage grass, rodents, livestock and raptors coexist, but there are much less forage grass and raptors, much more rodents and livestock on a degraded alpine meadow than on a healthy alpine meadow. Only at the equilibrium
As a result of long-term evolution, the parameters in Model (1) are approximately constant, but some of them may vary significantly under special conditions. Alpine meadows are very sensitive to climate change. Global warming is an indisputable fact and would certainly affect the growth of forage grass, that is, global warming would vary the values of the parameters
Table 1 given below show how coordinates
Parameter | ||||||
As seen from Table 1, despite the fact that global warming and irrational utilization of alpine meadow alter the values of
The results induced by the increasing of
Meanwhile, increasing
The decreasing of
The restoration of a degraded alpine meadow helps it return to healthy status with more forage grass, more raptors, less rodents, less livestock and alpine meadow develops healthily by itself. Once the underlying causes of alpine meadow degradation are identified, one can conclude that an effective restoration strategy is to decrease
Some strategies aim to meliorate the vegetation, such as reseeding, fertilizing, irrigating, ruderal controlling and scarifying. This would enlarge parameters
Graze prohibiting, seasonal grazing, determining amount of livestock according to grass yield, providing livestock with supplementary food, building plastic greenhouse shelters to protect livestock are common restoration strategies related to livestock. In practice, it is impossible to prohibit grazing for a long period of time in a huge area, otherwise, the alpine meadow would lose its function and the animal husbandry would be blocked. Graze prohibiting and seasonal grazing can only lighten grazing pressure during a short time interval in a small area and cannot alter parameters in Model (1). As a result, this cannot restore a degraded alpine meadow. Providing livestock with supplementary food and building plastic greenhouse shelters to protect livestock in winter are indeed the causes of alpine meadow degradation and will not help the restoration of degraded alpine meadows. Determining the amount of livestock according to grass yield is equivalent to increasing livestock mortality
Rodent control may be achieved through rodenticide or through protecting its natural enemy. Protecting raptors can reduce the death rate of raptors such that the parameter
As a strategy of restoring degraded alpine meadows, ecological migration, has been implemented in several places. After a large number of pastoralists and livestock moved away, the remaining pastoralists may still care their livestock attentively. As pastoralists have enough livestock to meet their needs, the system becomes ecologically stable as parameters
In summary, determining the amount of livestock according to grass yield, ecological migration and protecting raptors are effective integrated measures to restore a degraded alpine meadow.
Despite the fact that scarifying, reseeding, fertilizing, irrigating, ruderal controlling, graze prohibiting, seasonal grazing, rodents control with rodenticide cannot restore a degraded alpine meadow thoroughly, these strategies are conducive to its restoration. These strategies can help the alpine meadow ecosystem approach the positive equilibrium
Making use of a mathematical modelling exercise, in this work, we analyzed the underlying causes of alpine meadow degradation and evaluated the efficiency of restoration strategies. Our analysis suggests that the increasing of raptor mortality (
The authors were very grateful to the anonymous reviewers' very helpful comments and suggestions. This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China [grant number 11371313,61573016], Qinghai Innovation Platform Construction Project [grant number 2017-ZJ-Y20], Shanxi 131 Talents Program and Shanxi 100 Talent Program.
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1. | Hanwu Liu, Fengqin Zhang, Huakun Zhou, THE DYNAMICAL BEHAVIOR AND APPLICATION OF ONE ALPINE MEADOW MODEL, 2021, 11, 2156-907X, 2701, 10.11948/20200313 | |
2. | Jilan Li, Xilai Li, Jiexia Li, Zihan Song, WITHDRAWN: Interactions between simulated grazing and plateau pika disturbance impact soil microbial community and network of alpine meadow, 2022, 24522198, 100512, 10.1016/j.rhisph.2022.100512 | |
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Parameter | ||||||