Figure 1.
Dumping site besides the main road at Mppape, Abuja revealing Nylon bags waste [16].
Mast cells (MC) are central effectors of allergic disease and distinct subsets with varying amounts of tryptase, chymase, and carboxypeptidase A3, and cathepsin G is distributed throughout the body. Their involvement in a diverse range of non-allergic illnesses mediated by a complex range of preformed and newly synthesized mediators is now increasingly recognized. The latter especially include conditions under the umbrella term of mast cell activation syndrome. In allergic disease, much has been written about the mechanisms by which the early and rapidly acting mediators produce both localized and systemic allergic symptoms. The role of chymase is presently underappreciated but there is increased awareness that MCs contain significant amounts of preformed TNF alpha and synthesize and releases a wide range of inflammatory cytokines such as interleukins (IL) 1β, IL6, IL31, and IL33. These can aggravate itching and perpetuate inflammation and likely contribute to the late constitutional symptoms seen in allergic reactions. Importantly, their involvement helps to clarify the role of MCs in stress and non-parasitic infections. Presently, unexplained is the increasing incidence of significant acute allergic reactions within a relatively short time frame. In this context, there is increasing interest in the environmental, menstrual, endocrine, circadian, and psychological factors that influence MC activation as well as the endocrine pathways involving the renin angiotensin system that oppose hypotension. In non-allergic diseases with normal numbers of MCs, reduced thresholds for activation may be produced by various combinations of life and dietary factors. Diagnosing these conditions is difficult but may be helped by urinary analysis of prostaglandin metabolites. The investigation and management of mastocytosis with and without mutations of c-kit is also relevant to allergic disease and the new medications used may also be helpful in idiopathic anaphylaxis. This knowledge may open a new chapter in human diseases and mast cell regulation.
Citation: Amolak S Bansal, Alex Nicholas, Nazira Sumar, Veronica Varney. Mast cells, mediators, and symptomatic activation[J]. AIMS Allergy and Immunology, 2024, 8(1): 34-55. doi: 10.3934/Allergy.2024004
| [1] | Z. Aboub, B. Daoudi, A. Boukraa . Theoretical study of Ni doping SrTiO3 using a density functional theory. AIMS Materials Science, 2020, 7(6): 902-910. doi: 10.3934/matersci.2020.6.902 |
| [2] | Lu Wang, Chris M. Marin, Wai-Ning Mei, Chin Li Cheung . Electronic structures of lanthanum, samarium, and gadolinium sulfides. AIMS Materials Science, 2015, 2(2): 97-105. doi: 10.3934/matersci.2015.2.97 |
| [3] | Kulpash Iskakova, Rif Akhmaltdinov, Temirgali Kuketaev . Formation of (Cu)n & (Cu2O)n nanostructures with the stability of their clusters. AIMS Materials Science, 2018, 5(3): 543-550. doi: 10.3934/matersci.2018.3.543 |
| [4] | Radi A. Jishi . Modified Becke-Johnson exchange potential: improved modeling of lead halides for solar cell applications. AIMS Materials Science, 2016, 3(1): 149-159. doi: 10.3934/matersci.2016.1.149 |
| [5] | Iñaki López, Teresa Cebriano, Pedro Hidalgo, Emilio Nogales, Javier Piqueras, Bianchi Méndez . The role of impurities in the shape, structure and physical properties of semiconducting oxide nanostructures grown by thermal evaporation. AIMS Materials Science, 2016, 3(2): 425-433. doi: 10.3934/matersci.2016.2.425 |
| [6] | Xuan Luc Le, Nguyen Dang Phu, Nguyen Xuan Duong . Enhancement of ferroelectricity in perovskite BaTiO3 epitaxial thin films by sulfurization. AIMS Materials Science, 2024, 11(4): 802-814. doi: 10.3934/matersci.2024039 |
| [7] | Larysa Khomenkova, Mykola Baran, Jedrzej Jedrzejewski, Caroline Bonafos, Vincent Paillard, Yevgen Venger, Isaac Balberg, Nadiia Korsunska . Silicon nanocrystals embedded in oxide films grown by magnetron sputtering. AIMS Materials Science, 2016, 3(2): 538-561. doi: 10.3934/matersci.2016.2.538 |
| [8] | Alberto Debernardi . Ab initio calculation of band alignment of epitaxial La2O3 on Si(111) substrate. AIMS Materials Science, 2015, 2(3): 279-293. doi: 10.3934/matersci.2015.3.279 |
| [9] | Lucangelo Dimesso, Michael Wussler, Thomas Mayer, Eric Mankel, Wolfram Jaegermann . Inorganic alkali lead iodide semiconducting APbI3 (A = Li, Na, K, Cs) and NH4PbI3 films prepared from solution: Structure, morphology, and electronic structure. AIMS Materials Science, 2016, 3(3): 737-755. doi: 10.3934/matersci.2016.3.737 |
| [10] | Mohammad Na'aim Abd Rahim, Mohd Shukor Salleh, Saifudin Hafiz Yahaya, Sivarao Subramonian, Azrin Hani Abdul Rashid, Syarifah Nur Aqida Syed Ahmad, Salah Salman Al-Zubaidi . Microstructural investigation and mechanical properties of Al2O3-MWCNTs reinforced aluminium composite. AIMS Materials Science, 2025, 12(2): 318-335. doi: 10.3934/matersci.2025017 |
Mast cells (MC) are central effectors of allergic disease and distinct subsets with varying amounts of tryptase, chymase, and carboxypeptidase A3, and cathepsin G is distributed throughout the body. Their involvement in a diverse range of non-allergic illnesses mediated by a complex range of preformed and newly synthesized mediators is now increasingly recognized. The latter especially include conditions under the umbrella term of mast cell activation syndrome. In allergic disease, much has been written about the mechanisms by which the early and rapidly acting mediators produce both localized and systemic allergic symptoms. The role of chymase is presently underappreciated but there is increased awareness that MCs contain significant amounts of preformed TNF alpha and synthesize and releases a wide range of inflammatory cytokines such as interleukins (IL) 1β, IL6, IL31, and IL33. These can aggravate itching and perpetuate inflammation and likely contribute to the late constitutional symptoms seen in allergic reactions. Importantly, their involvement helps to clarify the role of MCs in stress and non-parasitic infections. Presently, unexplained is the increasing incidence of significant acute allergic reactions within a relatively short time frame. In this context, there is increasing interest in the environmental, menstrual, endocrine, circadian, and psychological factors that influence MC activation as well as the endocrine pathways involving the renin angiotensin system that oppose hypotension. In non-allergic diseases with normal numbers of MCs, reduced thresholds for activation may be produced by various combinations of life and dietary factors. Diagnosing these conditions is difficult but may be helped by urinary analysis of prostaglandin metabolites. The investigation and management of mastocytosis with and without mutations of c-kit is also relevant to allergic disease and the new medications used may also be helpful in idiopathic anaphylaxis. This knowledge may open a new chapter in human diseases and mast cell regulation.
angiotensin converting enzyme;
renin angiotensin system;
angiotensin-2;
angiotensin-1;
platelet activating factor;
endothelial nitric oxide;
angiotensin-2 receptor;
bradykinin;
blood pressure;
complement protein C5a;
complement protein C3a;
messenger RNA;
Immunoglobulin E
According to Braun D et al. [1,2], the discovery of "macromolecules" by Hermann Staudinger in the early nineteens, pave way for the development of synthetic polymeric materials. Due to their high molecular weight, polymeric materials are known to possess some quality attributes such as mechanical and technical properties [3,4] which are not observed in other substances like metal and iron. For instance, against the shortcoming of iron and metal, the chemical nature of polymer has made it resistible to water and micro-organisms attack [5,6], which has enhanced the durability of polymeric materials. However, these distinct polymer properties have been inimical to the bio-degradation of polymer waste leading to the accumulation of polymer waste in the environment [6,7]. The accumulation of this polymer waste is considered a huge threat to healthy living and environment [8].
Polyethylene bags (known as Nylon bags in Nigeria) among other polymeric compounds were developed in the 1970s [9,10], and since then, it has gained wide acceptance among the buyers and sellers. Special features such as its versatility, affordability, availability, and minimal cost to produce among other factors are reasons for its wide usage, as Spokas KA [11] reported that around 500 billion plastic bags are used every year worldwide. The case is not far from Nigeria, Anichebe E [12] revealed that Nigeria generates more than 32 million metric tonnes of waste annually, which plastic waste is amount to 2.5 million tons [13]. Nigeria is rated as the ninth in the world for plastic pollution especially in marine pollution, and mismanagement of plastic waste [7].
Due to its availability and affordability, people discard polyethylene bags at a slight opportunity, neglecting the other option of reuse. One of the reasons for this act is that they know, they can easily acquire one when next they visit any supermart, or simply walk up to any vendor, which their request will be gladly granted as a means of winning their patronage. Though recycling is much emphasised, recycling Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE) and Linear-Low Density Polyethylene (LLDPE) bags are considered not cost-effective, as it is cheap, and the feasibility of leaching toxic chemicals at the point of recycling is also major hindrance [12]. This is why Polyethylene bags are much saturated in Nigeria's environment.
Odior et al. [14] revealed that, Nigeria is Africa's largest importer of plastics in primary forms, as production of Linear-Low Density Polyethylene bag happened to be a major source of income for small-medium business opportunities. This may be difficult for government to completely do away with polyethylene bags, as it is a means of livelihood to some. However, the health and the environmental impacts of Polyethylene bags outweigh all the benefits [11,15]. Polyethylene bags, especially, Linear-Low Density Polyethylene bag is generously utilised in Nigeria without a second thought of what will be the response of environment to this overloading of Polyethylene waste.
Therefore, this paper seeks to discourse the imminent danger of generous uses of Polyethylene bags in Nigeria, and its environmental implications.
According to Dumbili E et al. [7], the use of plastic bags with other single-use plastic products such as takeaway food packs, spoons, cups and straws is a daily adventure in Nigeria.
Polyethylene bags (Nylon bags) are generously used for many purposes in Nigeria, such as packaging nylon (LDPE bag) for books; small electronics appliances (both LDPE and LLDPE), food items (majorly LLDPE bag), commodity etcetera. It is used as waste collection nylon (LDPE bags) in many local hospitals, organisations and homes. While low-income earners children and rural dwellers used it as school bags, many households and food vendors use Linear-Low Density Polyethylene bag as a wrapper for solid meal, complimentary gifts in some supermarts and boutiques. Some customers even request extra nylon (LDPE and LLDPE bags), which are generously granted without a thought of the impact of that single nylon on the environment.
Apart from the prevalent uses of polyethylene bags (known as Nylon bags) in various supermart and shop outlets, one of the most predominant usages is in domestic affairs, especially, kitchen apartments. Nigeria being blessed with many tribes [17], has many local dishes, which cut across different regions. Most of these local delicacies are majorly in form of solid, as our forefathers, whose major occupations such as farming, blacksmith, fishing etc., required energy. They believed that solid meals could supply the energy needed to carry out their day-to-day activities, so most local meals are solid. Some of these local dishes were formerly prepared in specialised leaves before cooking (such as Moinmoin, Okpa), or wrapped with leaves when is done (such as Eba, Apu, Tuwo, pounded yam, Amala, Kukure etc.).
With the advent of technology and the discovery of Polyethylene bags, these special leaves previously used for cooking and wrapping of solid meals, have been substituted with polyethylene bags [18]. Even, the likes of modern vitamins-fortified solid meals such as Semolina, Wheat are now usually wrapped with polyethylene bags after cooking, even when the meal is still hot. This is a common practice at major homes, food vendors and cafeterias. Although, research is ongoing to determine the health negative impact of Polyethylene bags, but the discovery of plastic bisphenol-A (BPA) residue in human urine [19], has attested to the fact that same can occur with polyethylene bags. alami T and Ogbe A [16,20] buttressed this fact by predicting high tendency of chemical leaching of Polyethylene bags (or Polyethylene additives) into the food as a result of heat application in the process of wrapping hot solid meal (such as Semo, Amala, Apu and Tuwo Shinkafa), and cooking of Moinmoin, Okpa (a solid meal derived from beans pudding) with polyethylene bags. This has a grave consequence as terminal diseases such as cancer and renal failure have been traced to ingestion of this harmful chemical via food [19]. Unfortunately, most people that patronised these nylon-wrapped foods are those that cannot adequately take care of the health consequence of consuming nylon-wrapped food due to financial constraints.
Also, in most local canteen, low-class families, and rural areas, firewood is often a major source of cooking. Waste Polyethylene bags are commonly used to ignite the fire to the firewood, in some cases, waste polyethylene bags are burnt concurrently with firewood, in order to speed up the rate of combustion. In the process of cooking, some may inhale smoke containing polyethylene chemicals, while some smoke may be dissolved into the meal that is on fire. On long exposure, this may have negative effect on the eyes, as well as on the environment [21].
The chemical composition of polymer distinguishes it from other materials as polymer contains a repeated unit of monomers or copolymers [1,3]. According to Ewelele RO ([22], the properties of polymer is not independent of their molecular weight. Since same polymer under different degree of polymerisation exhibit different properties, it will be wise to examine different molecular weight of polyethylene to predict their polymeric behaviours.
The need to improve more on HDPE properties such as flexibility gave birth to LLDPE. Linear Low-Density Polyethylene (LLDPE) is produced by copolymerization of ethylene with relatively small amounts of 1-alkene at low temperature and pressure [23]. According to Wikipedia [24], the actual polymerization process can be done either in solution phase or in gas phase reactors. Usually, octene is the comonomer in solution phase while butene and hexene are copolymerized with ethylene in a gas phase reactor. The result of copolymerization process generates short branches along the linear polyethylene chain.
According to Okamura T et al. [23,25,26], Polyethylene (•CH2―CH2―) x was first synthesized on an industrial scale in 1939. This was done under high pressure of about 1,000–3,000 atm and at temperatures ranging from 80℃ to 300℃. A free radical polymerisation mechanism was employed in the presence of benzoyl peroxide as initiator. The final product resulted in Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE).
The limited application of Low-Density polyethylene due to the high number of branches formed, as a result of intermolecular and intramolecular chain transfer during polymerization, pave way for the introduction of High-density polyethylene [27]. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) is usually prepared at low pressure at about 70℃ in the presence of a special catalyst (Ziegler-Natta catalyst) [28].
Due to the high crystallinity, Polyethylene bags made from HDPE are durable, and not easily torn. Therefore, it can be re-used many times before finally disposed. Waste from HDPE bag is not so rampant, as it can outlast so many bags produced from LLDPE and LDPE. Recycling of HDPE bag is also feasible. A polyethylene bag made from LLDPE is usually referred to as a single used Polyethylene bag. Because of their flexibility, and availability, it is usually used once, it is affordable, easy to produce, and very cheap. Most waste Polyethylene bag in Nigeria is made from LLDPE, therefore, it constitutes the most misused of all Polyethylene bags.
| Types of Polyethylene | Properties | References |
| LLDPE |
ⅰ. The densities of LLDPE vary from 0.926gcm−3 to 0.94gcm−3
ⅱ. the crystallinity is 50–70 % ⅲ. Higher tensile strength ⅳ. Higher impact resistance than LDPE. ⅴ. It is very flexible and elongates under stress ⅵ. It has good resistance to chemicals. ⅶ. It has good electrical properties |
[23,24,29] |
| LDPE |
ⅰ. A high degree of short and long-chain branching.
ⅱ. Density - 0.910–0.940 g/cm3 ⅲ.the crystallinity (below about 50 %) ⅳ. highly malleable ⅴ. Low tensile strength ⅵ. Poor durability. |
[1,23,26] |
| HDPE |
ⅰ. The density is approximately 0.95 g/mL ⅱ. The crystallinity is about 70–90 % ⅲ.High melting point ⅳ. High tensile strength. ⅴ. Rigid, robust, and durable. |
[1,23,30] |
DownLoad:
CSV
Improper disposal is one of the major environmental challenges of polyethylene bags in Nigeria [7]. It upsets the delicate balance of sanitation, majorly in the sub and urban area because of their high patronage to products that comes with Polyethylene bags. Several reports [6,7,31] revealed heaps of waste Polyethylene bags (Nylon bags) scattering throughout the major cities of Nigeria. For instance, Anunonwu CO [32] reported a heap of waste nylon bags in Owerri, the capital city of Imo State. The same trend was also noticed in Benin city, where improper disposal of waste in Nylon bag was prevalent on the major streets [33].
The Federal Capital Territory is not exonerated from this, as many dump areas are plagued with waste nylon bags flying all around, especially in a slum area surrounding the Federal Capital. This improper disposal may be seen as one of the contributing factors to flooding, as [34] revealed that the accumulation of polyethylene bags can block the drainage system, thereby causing water to go in wrong direction. Dumbili E et al. [7,35] further revealed that household sewerage system can be jeopardised as a result of throwing away wastewater with waste polyethylene bags used for wrapping solid meals, a practice which is prevalent among middle and low-class families.
Blocked drainage causes stagnant water, which provides site for mosquito breeding, as the survey [36] revealed that malaria remains the foremost public health problem among pregnant women and infants under five (5) years in Nigeria. WHO [37] further approximately estimated that 57 million cases of malaria are reported, and nearly 100,000 malaria-related deaths occur each year. This cost the Federal government 40% of total GDP in prevention, treatment and cost of labours [15,36].
The presence of LDPE in soil was recently reported to show the most negative effect among other plastic types reducing the growth and quantitative phytochemicals in plants [40,41].
Recently, the community solid waste, which includes waste polyethylene bags has been utilised in landfilling. All polymers including polyethylene bags decompose very slowly, due to limited availability of oxygen and humidity [8,21].. The product yielded CH4 (methane), H2O and CO2 (carbon dioxide) with biomass. Methane is one of the gasses that cause Greenhouse effect (depletion of ozone layer, thereby allowing the penetration of direct sunlight). Skin cancer and skin diseases are the direct consequence of greenhouse effect. Also, [9] revealed that domestic animals fed on plants from this contaminated soil risk being choked or death.
Incineration of household solid waste is a common practice in Nigeria, especially, in towns and semi-urban areas where a waste collection system is not functioning or under-functioning
However, North EJ [21] revealed that incineration of polymeric materials such as polyethylene bags could be harmful to the health and environment, as its residue may consist of chemicals, Volatile Organic Compound (VOCs). These can trigger greenhouse effect, asthma in asthmatic patients, and upset the delicate balance of nervous system.
Marine pollution is also a major recipient of land plastic bags pollution. Studies had revealed the tendency of waste plastic bags migrating to the sea [7,12]. This has grave consequences on aquatic habitat, also on the consumers of such sea animals. Nigeria is considered the ninth nation with largest plastic waste pollution of marine [7]. Marine waste plastic pollution has been considered as the source of microplastic in rainwater.
Though, the advent of Polyethylene bags brought about convenience and affordability, however, the health and the environmental impacts of Polyethylene bags outweigh all the benefits [11,15]. While the use of Polyethylene bags cannot be suddenly abhorred, however, there is an urgent need for adequate measures to address the imminent environmental consequence of Polyethylene bags. This measure should be focus on promoting the idea of reducing; reuse and recycling Polyethylene bags. The government at different strata should champion the course of promoting awareness of the implications of Polyethylene bags to the environment.
Research focussing on the copolymerisation of the natural product with a polymer to make polymer biodegradable should be encouraged through all the institutions and research institutes.
Also, the Federal Government through the designated policymakers should legislate and regulate the amount of Polyethylene bags produced in the country, this will encourage the habit of 'reduce and reuse' Polyethylene bags in the country. Nigeria government can emulate various measure taking by neighbouring countries (such as Rwanda and Kenya) to eliminate the use of Polyethylene bags and replace with biodegradable ones (such as paper bag).
The authors unanimously declare that this paper is free from any conflict of interest.
| [1] | Bjornsson HM, Graffeo CS (2010) Improving diagnostic accuracy of anaphylaxis in acute care setting. West J Emerg Med 11: 456-461. |
| [2] | Tejeclor A, Lonson MA, Moromoro M, et al. (2014) Epidemiology of anaphylaxis. Clin Exp Allergy 45: 1027-1039. https://doi.org/10.1111/cea.12418 |
| [3] |
Mullins RJ, Wainstein BK, Barnes EH, et al. (2016) Increases in anaphylaxis fatalities in Australia from 1997–2013. Clin Exp Allergy 46: 1099-1110. https://doi.org/10.1111/cea.12748 
|
| [4] |
Sheikh A, Alves B (2001) Age, sex, geographical and socio-economic variations in admissions for anaphylaxis: analysis of four years of English hospital data. Clin Exp All 31: 1571-1576. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2222.2001.01203.x
|
| [5] |
Braganza SC, Acworth JP, McKinnon DRL, et al. (2006) Paediatric emergency department anaphylaxis: different patterns from Adults. Arch Dis Child 91: 159-163. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.2004.069914
|
| [6] |
Macdougall CF, Cart AJ, Clover AF (2002) How dangerous is food allergy in childhood? The incidence of severe and fatal allergic reactions across UK and Ireland. Arch Dis Child 86: 236-237. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.86.4.236
|
| [7] |
Vetander M, Protudjer JLP, Liija G, et al. (2016) Anaphylaxis to foods in a population of adolescents: incidence, characteristics and associated risks. Clin Exp Allergy 46: 1575-1587. https://doi.org/10.1111/cea.12842
|
| [8] |
Terr AI (1985) Anaphylaxis. Clin Rev Allergy 3: 3-23. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02993040
|
| [9] |
Delage C, Irey NS (1972) Anaphylactic deaths: a Clinicopathologic study of 43 cases. J Forensic Sci 17: 525-540. https://doi.org/10.1520/JFS10141J
|
| [10] |
Greenberger PA, Rotskoff BD, Lifschultz B (2007) Fatal anaphylaxis: postmortem findings and associated comorbid diseases. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 98: 252-257. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1081-1206(10)60714-4
|
| [11] |
Smith PK, Hourihane JO, Lieberman P (2005) Risk multipliers for severe food anaphylaxis. World Allergy Organ J 8: 30. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40413-015-0081-0
|
| [12] |
Pumphrey R, Stanworth SJ (1996) The clinical spectrum of anaphylaxis in north-west England. Clin Exp All 26: 1364-1370. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2222.1996.tb00537.x
|
| [13] |
Pumphrey RS (2000) Lessons for management of anaphylaxis from a study of fatal reactions. Clin Exp Allergy 30: 1144-1150. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2222.2000.00864.x
|
| [14] |
Reber LL, Hernandez JD, Galli SJ (2007) The pathophysiology of anaphylaxis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 140: 335-348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2017.06.003
|
| [15] |
Gupta R, Sheikh A, Strachan DP (2007) Time trends in allergic disorders in the UK. Thorax 62: 91-96. https://doi.org/10.1136/thx.2004.038844
|
| [16] |
Berlin MC (2015) Pathogenesis of IgE mediated food allergy. Clin Exp Allergy 45: 1483-1496. https://doi.org/10.1111/cea.12598
|
| [17] |
Harper NJN, Cook TM, Garcez T, et al. (2018) Anaesthesia, surgery and life-threatening allergic reactions: Management and outcomes in the 6th National Audit Project (NAP6). Br J Anaesth 121: 159-171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bja.2018.04.015
|
| [18] |
Sato T, Morishita S, Horie T, et al. (2019) Involvement of premacular mast cells in the pathogenesis of macular diseases. PLoS One 14: e0211438. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0211438
|
| [19] |
Lauritano D, Mastrangelo F, D'Ovidio C, et al. (2023) Activation of mast cells by neuropeptides: The role of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Int J Mol Sci 24: 4811. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24054811
|
| [20] |
Nishino S, Sakai N, Nishino N, et al. (2022) Brain mast cells in sleep and behavioral regulation. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 59: 427-446. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2022_359
|
| [21] |
Theoharides TC, Valent P, Akin C (2015) Mast cells, mastocytosis, and related disorders. N Engl J Med 373: 163-172. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1409760
|
| [22] |
Leguit RJ, Wang SA, George TI, et al. (2023) The international consensus classification of mastocytosis and related entities. Virchows Arch 482: 99-112. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00428-022-03423-3
|
| [23] |
Gülen T, Akin C, Bonadonna P, et al. (2021) Selecting the right criteria and proper classification to diagnose mast cell activation syndromes: A critical review. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 9: 3918-3928. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2021.06.011
|
| [24] |
Valent P, Hartmann K, Bonadonna P, et al. (2022) Mast cell activation syndromes: Collegium internationale allergologicum update. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 183: 693-705. https://doi.org/10.1159/000524532
|
| [25] |
Hellman L, Akula S, Fu Z, et al. (2022) Mast cell and basophil granule proteases - In Vivo targets and function. Front Immunol 13: 918305. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2022.918305
|
| [26] |
Bian G, Gu Y, Xu C, et al. (2021) Early development and functional properties of tryptase/chymase double-positive mast cells from human pluripotent stem cells. J Mol Cell Biol 13: 104-115. https://doi.org/10.1093/jmcb/mjaa059
|
| [27] |
Komi DEA, Rambasek T, Wöhrl S (2018) Mastocytosis: From a molecular point of view. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 54: 397-411. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12016-017-8619-2
|
| [28] |
Irani AA, Schechter NM, Craig SS, et al. (1986) Two types of human mast cells that have distinct neutral protease compositions. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 83: 4464-4468. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.83.12.4464
|
| [29] |
Siddhuraj P, Clausson CM, Sanden C, et al. (2021) Lung mast cells have a high constitutive expression of carboxypeptidase A3 mRNA that is independent from granule-stored CPA3. Cells 10: 309. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10020309
|
| [30] |
Donelan J, Boucher W, Papadopoulou N, et al. (2006) Corticotropin-releasing hormone induces skin vascular permeability through a neurotensin-dependent process. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103: 7759-7764. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0602210103
|
| [31] |
Mustain WC, Rychahou PG, Evers BM (2011) The role of neurotensin in physiologic and pathologic processes. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 18: 75-82. https://doi.org/10.1097/MED.0b013e3283419052
|
| [32] |
Gaudenzio N, Sibilano R, Marichal T, et al. (2016) Different activation signals induce distinct mast cell degranulation strategies. J Clin Invest 126: 3981-3998. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI85538
|
| [33] |
Cianferoni A (2021) Non-IgE-mediated anaphylaxis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 147: 1123-1131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2021.02.012
|
| [34] |
Poto R, Quinti I, Marone G, et al. (2022) IgG autoantibodies against IgE from atopic dermatitis can induce the release of cytokines and proinflammatory mediators from basophils and mast cells. Front Immunol 13: 880412. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2022.880412
|
| [35] |
Wernersson S, Pejler G (2014) Mast cell secretory granules: armed for battle. Nat Rev Immunol 14: 478-494. https://doi.org/10.1038/nri3690
|
| [36] |
Lee J, Vadas P (2011) Anaphylaxis: mechanisms and management. Clin Exp Allergy 41: 923-938. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2222.2011.03779.x
|
| [37] |
Lundequist A, Pejler G (2011) Biological implications of preformed mast cell mediators. Cell Mol Life Sci 68: 965-975. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-010-0587-0
|
| [38] |
Theoharides TC, Kempuraj D, Tagen M, et al. (2007) Differential release of mast cell mediators and the pathogenesis of inflammation. Immunol Rev 217: 65-78. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-065X.2007.00519.x
|
| [39] |
Morita H, Nakae S, Saito H, et al. (2017) IL-33 in clinical practice: Size matters?. J Allergy Clin Immunol 140: 381-383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2017.03.042
|
| [40] |
Zhang B, Weng Z, Sismanopoulos N, et al. (2012) Mitochondria distinguish granule-stored from de novo synthesized tumor necrosis factor secretion in human mast cells. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 159: 23-32. https://doi.org/10.1159/000335178
|
| [41] |
Nakao A, Nakamura Y, Shibata S (2015) The circadian clock functions as a potent regulator of allergic reaction. Allergy 70: 467-473. https://doi.org/10.1111/all.12596
|
| [42] |
Askenase PW (2005) Mast cells and the mediation of T-cell recruitment in arthritis. N Engl J Med 349: 1294. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM200309253491319
|
| [43] |
Gordon JR, Galli SJ (1990) Mast cells as a source of both preformed and immunologically inducible TNF-α/cachectin. Nature 346: 274-276. https://doi.org/10.1038/346274a0
|
| [44] |
Zhang B, Alysandratos KD, Angelidou A, et al. (2011) Human mast cell degranulation and preformed TNF secretion require mitochondrial translocation to exocytosis sites: relevance to atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 127: 1522-1531.e8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2011.02.005
|
| [45] |
Panula P (2021) Histamine receptors, agonists, and antagonists in health and disease. Handb Clin Neurol 180: 377-387. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820107-7.00023-9
|
| [46] |
Ahmad S, Varagic J, Groban L, et al. (2014) Angiotensin (1–12); A chymase mediated cellular angiotensin II substrate. Curr Hypertens Res 16: 429-437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11906-014-0429-9
|
| [47] |
He S, Walls AF (1998) The induction of a prolonged increase in microvascular permeability by human mast cell chymase. Eur J Pharmacol 352: 91-98. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0014-2999(98)00343-4
|
| [48] |
Wong CK, Ng SSM, Lun SWM, et al. (2009) Signaling mechanisms regulating the activation of human eosinophils by mast-cell-derived Chymase; implications for mast-cell-eosinophil interaction in allergic inflammation. Immunology 126: 579-587. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2567.2008.02916.x
|
| [49] |
Caughey GH (2007) Mast cell tryptases and chymases in inflammation and host defense. Immunol Rev 217: 141-154. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-065X.2007.00509.x
|
| [50] |
Saarinen JV, Harvima RJ, Naukkarinen A, et al. (2001) The release of histamine is associated with the inactivation of mast cell chymase during immediate allergic wheal reactions in the skin. Clin Exp Allergy 31: 593-601. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2222.2001.01030.x
|
| [51] |
Guilarte M, Sala-Cunill A, Luengo O, et al. (2017) The mast cell contact and coagulation system connection in anaphylaxis. Front Immunol 8: 846. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2017.00846
|
| [52] |
Proud D, Togias A, Nacleiro RM, et al. (1983) Kinins are generated in vivo following airway challenge of allergic individuals with allergen. J Clin Invest 72: 1678-1685. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI111127
|
| [53] |
Stone SF, Brown SG (2012) Mediators released during human anaphylaxis. Curr Allergy Asthma Rev 12: 33-41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11882-011-0231-6
|
| [54] |
Caughey GH (2016) Mast cell proteases as pharmacological targets. Eur J Pharmacol 778: 44-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.04.045
|
| [55] | Imamura T, Dubin A, Moore W, et al. (1996) Induction of vascular permeability enhancement by human tryptase: dependence on activation of prekallikrein and direct release of bradykinin from kininogens. Lab Invest 74: 861-870. |
| [56] |
Vadas P, Gold M, Perelman B, et al. (2008) Platelet-activating factor, PAF acetylhydrolase, and severe anaphylaxis. N Engl J Med 358: 28-35. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa070030
|
| [57] |
Fukuda Y, Kawashima H, Saito K, et al. (2000) Effect of human plasma-type platelet activating factor acetylhydrolase in two anaphylactic shock models. Eur J Pharmacol 390: 203-207. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0014-2999(99)00920-6
|
| [58] |
Arimura A, Harada M (1991) Differential effect of a PAF antagonist CV- 3988 on active and passive anaphylactic shock in various mouse strains. Lipids 26: 1386-1390. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02536572
|
| [59] |
Gill P, Jindal NL, Jagdis A, et al. (2015) Platelets in the immune response; Revisiting platelet activating factor in anaphylaxis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 135: 1424-1432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2015.04.019
|
| [60] |
Kajiwara N, Sasaki T, Braddind P, et al. (2010) Activation of human mast cells through the platelet-activating factor receptor. J Allergy Clin Immunology 125: 1137-1145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2010.01.056
|
| [61] |
Dao VT, Medini S, Bisha M, et al. (2016) Nitric oxide up-regulates endothelial expression of angiotensin II type 2 receptors. Biochem Pharmacol 112: 24-36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcp.2016.05.011
|
| [62] |
Mombouli JV, Vanhoutte PM (1992) Heterogeneity of endothelium-dependent vasodilator effects of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors: role of bradykinin generation during ACE inhibition. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 20: S74-S82. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005344-199200209-00014
|
| [63] |
Lowenstein CJ, Michel T (2006) What's in a name? eNOS and anaphylactic shock. J Clin Invest 116: 2075-2078. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI29406
|
| [64] | Kuehn HS, Radinger M, Gilfillan AM (2010) Measuring mast cell mediator release. Curr Protoc Immunol 2 Chapter 7: Unit 7.38. https://doi.org/10.1002/0471142735.im0738s91 |
| [65] |
Nguyen SMT, Rupprecht CP, Haque A, et al. (2021) Mechanisms governing anaphylaxis: inflammatory cells, mediators, endothelial gap junctions and beyond. Int J Mol Sci 22: 7785. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22157785
|
| [66] |
Dileepan KN, Raveendran VV, Sharma R (2023) Mast cell-mediated immune regulation in health and disease. Front Med (Lausanne) 10: 1213320. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2023.1213320
|
| [67] |
Mukai K, Tsai M, Saito, et al. (2018) Mast cells as sources of cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors. Immunol Rev 282: 121-150. https://doi.org/10.1111/imr.12634
|
| [68] |
Noordenbos T, Blijdorp I, Chen S, et al. (2016) D. Human mast cells capture, store, and release bioactive, exogenous IL-17A. J Leukoc Biol 100: 453-462. https://doi.org/10.1189/jlb.3HI1215-542R
|
| [69] |
Moulin D, Donzé O, Talabot-Ayer D, et al. (2007) Interleukin (IL)-33 induces the release of pro-inflammatory mediators by mast cells. Cytokine 40: 216-225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cyto.2007.09.013
|
| [70] |
Saluja R, Ketelaar ME, Hawro T, et al. (2015) The role of the IL-33/IL-1RL1 axis in mast cell and basophil activation in allergic disorders. Mol Immunol 63: 80-85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molimm.2014.06.018
|
| [71] |
Silver MR, Margulis A, Wood N, et al. (2010) IL-33 synergizes with IgE-dependent and IgE-independent agents to promote mast cell and basophil activation. Inflamm Res 59: 207-218. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00011-009-0088-5
|
| [72] |
Kandere-Grzybowska K, Letourneau R, Kempuraj D, et al. (2003) IL-1 induces vesicular secretion of IL-6 without degranulation from human mast cells. J Immunol 171: 4830-4836. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.171.9.4830
|
| [73] |
Theoharides TC, Zhang B, Kempuraj D, et al. (2010) IL-33 augments substance P-induced VEGF secretion from human mast cells and is increased in psoriatic skin. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107: 4448-4453. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1000803107
|
| [74] |
Petra AI, Tsilioni I, Taracanova A, et al. (2018) Interleukin 33 and interleukin 4 regulate interleukin 31 gene expression and secretion from human laboratory of allergic diseases 2 mast cells stimulated by substance P and/or immunoglobulin E. Allergy Asthma Proc 39: 153-160. https://doi.org/10.2500/aap.2018.38.4105
|
| [75] |
Salamon P, Shoham NG, Gavrieli R, et al. (2005) Human mast cells release Interleukin-8 and induce neutrophil chemotaxis on contact with activated T cells. Allergy 60: 1316-1319. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1398-9995.2005.00886.x
|
| [76] |
Sumpter TL, Ho CH, Pleet AR, et al. (2015) Autocrine hemokinin-1 functions as an endogenous adjuvant for IgE-mediated mast cell inflammatory responses. J Allergy Clin Immunol 135: 1019-1030.e8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2014.07.036
|
| [77] | Conti P, Caraffa Al, Kritas SK, et al. (2017) Mast cell, pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory: Jekyll and Hyde, the story continues. J Biol Regul Homeost Agents 31: 263-267. |
| [78] |
Bruhns P, Chollet-Martin S (2021) Mechanisms of human drug-induced anaphylaxis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 147: 1133-1142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2021.02.013
|
| [79] |
Zhang B, Li Q, Shi C, et al. (2018) Drug-induced pseudoallergy: A review of the causes and mechanisms. Pharmacology 101: 104-110. https://doi.org/10.1159/000479878
|
| [80] |
Yu Y, Blokhuis BR, Garssen J, et al. (2016) Non-IgE mediated mast cell activation. Eur J Pharmacol 778: 33-43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.07.017
|
| [81] |
Cao J, Papadopoulou N, Kempuraj D, et al. (2005) Human mast cells express corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) receptors and CRH leads to selective secretion of vascular endothelial growth factor. J Immunol 174: 7665-7675. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.174.12.7665
|
| [82] |
Caceda R, Kinkead B, Nemeroff CB (2006) Neurotensin: role in psychiatric and neurological diseases. Peptides 27: 2385-2404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peptides.2006.04.024
|
| [83] |
Lazarus LH, Perrin MH, Brown MR, et al. (1977) Verification of both the sequence and conformational specificity of neurotensin in binding to mast cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 76: 1079-1085. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-291X(77)90966-4
|
| [84] |
Theoharides TC (2017) Neuroendocrinology of mast cells: challenges and controversies. Exp Dermatol 26: 751-759. https://doi.org/10.1111/exd.13288
|
| [85] |
Theoharides TC, Cochrane DE (2004) Critical role of mast cells in inflammatory diseases and the effect of acute stress. J Neuroimmunol 146: 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroim.2003.10.041
|
| [86] |
McNeil BD, Pundir P, Meeker S, et al. (2015) Identification of a mast-cell-specific receptor crucial for pseudo-allergic drug reactions. Nature 519: 237-241. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14022
|
| [87] |
Kolkhir P, Elieh-Ali-Komi D, Metz M, et al. (2022) Understanding human mast cells: lesson from therapies for allergic and non-allergic diseases. Nat Rev Immunol 22: 294-308. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41577-021-00622-y
|
| [88] |
Yoo HS, Yang EM, Kim MA, et al. (2014) A case of codeine induced anaphylaxis via oral route. Allergy Asthma Immunol Res 6: 95-97. https://doi.org/10.4168/aair.2014.6.1.95
|
| [89] |
Casale TB, Bowman S, Kaliner M (1984) Induction of human cutaneous mast cell degranulation by opiates and endogenous opioid peptides: evidence for opiate and nonopiate receptor participation. J Allergy Clin Immunol 73: 775-781. https://doi.org/10.1016/0091-6749(84)90447-0
|
| [90] | Logothetidis S (2014) Nanomedicine and Nanobiotechnology. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-24181-9 |
| [91] |
Dézsi L, Fülöp T, Mészáros T, et al. (2014) Features of complement activation-related pseudoallergy to liposomes with different surface charge and PEGylation: comparison of the porcine and rat responses. J Control Release 195: 2-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.08.009
|
| [92] |
Drouin SM, Kildsgaard J, Haviland J, et al. (2001) Expression of the complement anaphylatoxin C3a and C5a receptors on bronchial epithelial and smooth muscle cells in models of sepsis and asthma. J Immunol 166: 2025-2032. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.166.3.2025
|
| [93] |
Hartmann K, Henz BM, Krüger-Krasagakes S, et al. (1997) C3a and C5a stimulate chemotaxis of human mast cells. Blood 89: 2863-2870. https://doi.org/10.1182/blood.V89.8.2863
|
| [94] |
Kanagaratham C, El Ansari YS, Lewis OL, et al. (2020) IgE and IgG antibodies as regulators of mast cell and basophil functions in food allergy. Front Immunol 11: 603050. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.603050
|
| [95] |
Nimmerjahn F, Bruhns P, Horiuchi K, et al. (2005) Fcgamma RIV: a novel FcR with distinct IgG subclass specificity. Immunity 23: 41-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2005.05.010
|
| [96] |
Bruhns P, Jonsson F (2015) Mouse and human FcR effector functions. Immunol Rev 268: 25-51. https://doi.org/10.1111/imr.12350
|
| [97] |
Nimmerjahn F, Ravetch JV (2008) Fc gamma receptors as regulators of immune responses. Nat Rev Immunol 8: 34-47. https://doi.org/10.1038/nri2206
|
| [98] |
Nimmerjahn F, Ravetch JV (2006) Fcgamma receptors: old friends and new family members. Immunity 24: 19-28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2005.11.010
|
| [99] |
Cocchiara R, Albeggiani G, Di Trapani G (1990) Modulation of rat peritoneal mast cell and human basophil histamine release by estrogens. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol 93: 192-197. https://doi.org/10.1159/000235300
|
| [100] |
Nakasato H, Ohrui T, Sekizawa K (1999) Prevention of severe premenstrual asthma attacks by leukotriene receptor antagonist. J Allergy Clin Immunol 104: 585-588. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0091-6749(99)70327-1
|
| [101] |
Vliagoftis H, Dimitriadou V, Boucher W, et al. (1992) Estradiol augments while tamoxifen inhibits rat mast cell secretion. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 98: 398-409. https://doi.org/10.1159/000236217
|
| [102] |
Vrieze A, Postma DS, Kerstjens HA (2003) Perimenstrual asthma: a syndrome without known cause or cure. J Allergy Clin Immunol 112: 271-282. https://doi.org/10.1067/mai.2003.1676
|
| [103] |
Zaitsu M, Narita S, Lambert KC, et al. (2007) Estradiol activates mast cells via a non-genomic estrogen receptor-alpha and calcium influx. Mol Immunol 44: 1977-1985. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molimm.2006.09.030
|
| [104] |
Howard PJ, Ambrosuis WT, Tewksbury DA, et al. (1998) Serum Angiotensinogen concentration in relation to gonadal hormones, body size and genotype in growing young people. Hypertension 32: 875-879. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.HYP.32.5.875
|
| [105] |
Giacchetti G, Faloia E, Mariniello B, et al. (2002) Over expression of the renin angiotensin system in human visceral adipose tissue in normal and overweight subjects. Am J Hypertension 15: 381-388. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0895-7061(02)02257-4
|
| [106] |
Reinholz M, Ruzicka T, Schauber J (2012) Vitamin D and its role in allergic disease. Clin Exp Allergy 42: 817-826. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2222.2011.03923.x
|
| [107] |
Agrawal T, Gupta GK, Agrawal DK (2013) Vitamin D supplementation reduces airway hyperresponsiveness and allergic airway inflammation in a murine model. Clin Exp Allergy 43: 672-683. https://doi.org/10.1111/cea.12102
|
| [108] |
Aranow C (2011) Vitamin D and the immune system. J Investig Med 59: 881-886. https://doi.org/10.2310/JIM.0b013e31821b8755
|
| [109] |
Hewison M (2010) Vitamin D and the immune system: new perspectives on an old theme. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 39: 365-379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecl.2010.02.010
|
| [110] |
Norman AW, Mizwicki MT, Norman DP (2004) Steroid-hormone rapid actions, membrane receptors and a conformational ensemble model. Nat Rev Drug Discov 3: 27-41. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrd1283
|
| [111] |
Mahon BD, Wittke A, Weaver V, et al. (2003) The targets of vitamin D depend on the differentiation and activation status of CD4 positive T cells. J Cell Biochem 89: 922-932. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcb.10580
|
| [112] |
Fabri M, Stenger S, Shin DM, et al. (2011) Vitamin D is required for IFN-gamma-mediated antimicrobial activity of human macrophages. Sci Transl Med 3: 104ra102. https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.3003045
|
| [113] |
Gupta A, Dimeloe S, Richards DF, et al. (2014) Defective IL-10 expression and in vitro steroid-induced IL-17A in paediatric severe therapy-resistant asthma. Thorax 69: 508-515. https://doi.org/10.1136/thoraxjnl-2013-203421
|
| [114] |
Herman K, Ring J (1990) Hymenoptera venom anaphylaxis: may decrease levels of angiotensin peptides play a role?. Clin Exp All 20: 569-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2222.1990.tb03151.x
|
| [115] |
Herman K, Ring J (1993) The renin angiotensin system and hymenoptera venom anaphylaxis. Clin Exp Allergy 23: 762-769. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2222.1993.tb00364.x
|
| [116] |
Summers CW, Pumphrey RS, Woods CN, et al. (2008) Factors predicting anaphylaxis to peanuts and tree nuts in patients referred to a specialist centre. J Allergy Clin Immunol 121: 632-638. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2007.12.003
|
| [117] |
Slade CA, Douglass JA (2014) Changing practice: no need to stop ACE inhibitors for venom immunotherapy. Clin Exp Allergy 44: 617-619. https://doi.org/10.1111/cea.12295
|
| [118] | Varney VA, Warner A, Ghosh A, et al. (2012) IgE mediated anaphylaxis to foods, venom, and drugs; influence of serum angiotensin converting enzyme levels and genotype. J Allergy (Cairo) 2012: 258145. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/258145 |
| [119] | Niedoszytko M, Ratajska M, Jassem E (2007) AGT(M235T), ACE(I/D, I/I, D/D) polymorphism in patients with insect venom allergy preliminary results. Allergy 62: 111. |
| [120] | Mueller UR (1990) Clinical presentation and pathogenesis. Insect sting allergy . Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer 33-65. |
| [121] |
Dimitropoulou C, Chatterjee A, McCloud L (2006) Angiotensin, bradykinin and the endothelium. The Vascular Endothelium I. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology . Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer 255-294. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-32967-6_8
|
| [122] |
Varney VA, Nicholas A, Warner A, et al. (2019) IgE-mediated systemic anaphylaxis and its association with gene polymorphisms of ACE, angiotensinogen and chymase. J Asthma Allergy 12: 343-361. https://doi.org/10.2147/JAA.S213016
|
| [123] |
Nisho H, Takai S, Miyazaki M, et al. (2005) Usefulness of serum mast cells specific chymase levels for postmortem diagnosis of anaphylaxis. Int J Legal Med 119: 331-334. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00414-005-0524-1
|
| [124] |
Zhou X, Whitworth HS, E-Khedr M, et al. (2011) Mast cell chymase: a useful marker in anaphylaxis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 127: 990-997. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2011.01.057
|
| [125] |
Gulen T, Akin C (2021) Idiopathic anaphylaxis: a perplexing diagnostic challenge for allergists. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 21: 11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11882-021-00988-y
|
| [126] |
Akin C (2014) Mast cell activation disorders. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 2: 252-257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2014.03.007
|
| [127] |
Metcalfe DD, Peavy RD, Gilfillan AM (2009) Mechanisms of mast cell signaling in anaphylaxis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 124: 639-646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2009.08.035
|
| [128] |
Gulen T, Hagglund H, Dahlen SE, et al. (2014) Flushing, fatigue, and recurrent anaphylaxis: a delayed diagnosis of mastocytosis. Lancet 383: 1608. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60585-7
|
| [129] |
Valent P, Akin C, Arock M, et al. (2012) Definitions, criteria and global classification of mast cell disorders with special reference to mast cell activation syndromes: a consensus proposal. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 157: 215-225. https://doi.org/10.1159/000328760
|
| [130] |
Nakamura Y, Nakano N, Ishimaru K, et al. (2016) Inhibition of IgE-mediated allergic reactions by pharmacologically targeting the circadian clock. J Allergy Clin Immunol 137: 1226-1235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2015.08.052
|
| [131] |
Kristensen T, Vestergaard H, Bindslev-Jensen C, et al. (2014) Sensitive KIT D816V mutation analysis of blood as a diagnostic test in mastocytosis. Am J Hematol 89: 493-498. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajh.23672
|
| [132] |
Bonadonna P, bonifacio M, Lambarderdo C, et al. (2015) Hymenoptera anaphylaxis and C-KIT Mutations: An unexpected association. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 15: 49. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11882-015-0550-0
|
| [133] |
Sonneck K, Florian S, Mullauer L, et al. (2007) Diagnostic and sub-diagnostic accumulation of mast cells in the bone marrow of patients with anaphylaxis: Monoclonal mast cell activation syndrome. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 142: 158-164. https://doi.org/10.1159/000096442
|
| [134] |
Valent P, Akin C, Bonadonna P, et al. (2019) Proposed diagnostic algorithm for patients with suspected mast cell activation syndrome. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 7: 1125-1133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2019.01.006
|
| [135] |
Gulen T, Hagglund H, Dahlen B, et al. Mastocytosis: the puzzling clinical spectrum and challenging diagnostic aspects of an enigmatic disease. J Intern Med 279: 211-228. https://doi.org/10.1111/joim.12410
|
| [136] |
Valent P, Akin C, Metcalfe DD (2016) Mastocytosis 2016: updated WHO classification and novel emerging treatment concepts. Blood 129: 1420-1427. https://doi.org/10.1182/blood-2016-09-731893
|
| [137] |
Gotlib J, Kluin-Nelemans HC, George TI, et al. (2016) Efficacy and safety of midostaurin in advanced systemic mastocytosis. N Engl J Med 374: 2530-2541. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1513098
|
| [138] |
Fuchs D, Kilbertus A, Kofler K, et al. (2021) Scoring the risk of having systemic mastocytosis in adult patients with mastocytosis in the skin. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 9: 1705-1712.e4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2020.12.022
|
| [139] |
Kennedy VE, Perkins C, Reiter A, et al. (2023) Mast cell leukemia: clinical and molecular features and survival outcomes of patients in the ECNM Registry. Blood Adv 7: 1713-1724. https://doi.org/10.1182/bloodadvances.2022008292
|
| [140] |
Gulen T, Ljung C, Nilsson G, et al. (2017) Risk factor analysis of anaphylactic reactions in patients with systemic mastocytosis. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 5: 1248-1255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2017.02.008
|
| [141] |
Gulen T, Hagglund H, Dahlen B, et al. (2014) High prevalence of anaphylaxis in patients with systemic mastocytosis - a single-centre experience. Clin Exp Allergy 44: 121-129. https://doi.org/10.1111/cea.12225
|
| [142] |
Monaco A, Choi D, Uzun S, et al. (2022) Association of mast-cell-related conditions with hypermobile syndromes: a review of the literature. Immunol Res 70: 419-431. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12026-022-09280-1
|
| [143] |
Sumantri S, Rengganis I (2023) Immunological dysfunction and mast cell activation syndrome in long COVID. Asia Pac Allergy 13: 50-53. https://doi.org/10.5415/apallergy.0000000000000022
|
| [144] |
Voelker D, Pongdee T (2014) Urine mast cell mediators in the evaluation and diagnosis of mast cell activation syndrome. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 24: 33-38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11882-024-01128-y
|
| [145] |
Zhu L, Jian X, Zhou B, et al. (2024) Gut microbiota facilitate chronic spontaneous urticaria. Nat Commun 15: 112. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44373-x
|
| [146] |
Robey RC, Wilcock A, Bonin H, et al. (2020) Hereditary alpha-tryptasemia: UK prevalence and variability in disease expression. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 8: 3549-3556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2020.05.057
|
| [147] |
Chollet MB, Akin C (2021) Hereditary alpha tryptasemia is not associated with specific clinical phenotypes. J Allergy Clin Immunol 148: 889-894. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2021.06.017
|
| [148] |
Butterfield JH, Ravi A, Pongdee T (2018) Mast cell mediators of significance in clinical practice in mastocytosis. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 38: 397-410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iac.2018.04.011
|
| [149] |
Lyons JJ, Sun G, Stone KD, et al. (2014) Mendelian inheritance of elevated serum tryptase associated with atopy and connective tissue abnormalities. J Allergy Clin Immunol 133: 1471-1474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2013.11.039
|
| [150] |
Lyons JJ, Yu X, Hughes JD, et al. (2016) Elevated basal serum tryptase identifies a multisystem disorder associated with increased TPSAB1 copy number. Nat Genet 48: 1564-1569. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng.3696
|
| [151] |
Simons FE, Ardusso LR, Bilo MB, et al. (2011) World allergy organization guidelines for the assessment and management of anaphylaxis. World Allergy Organ J 4: 13-37. https://doi.org/10.1097/WOX.0b013e318211496c
|
| [152] |
Braganza SC, Acworth JP, McKinnon DR, et al. (2006) Paediatric emergency department anaphylaxis: different patterns from adults. Arch Dis Child 91: 159-163. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.2004.069914
|
| [153] |
Muraro A, Roberts G, Worm M, et al. (2014) Anaphylaxis: guidelines from the European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. Allergy 69: 1026-1045. https://doi.org/10.1111/all.12437
|
| [154] |
Jarkvist J, Salehi C, Akin C, et al. (2020) Venom immunotherapy in patients with clonal mast cell disorders: IgG4 correlates with protection. Allergy 75: 169-177. https://doi.org/10.1111/all.13980
|
| [155] |
Broesby-Olsen S, Vestergaard H, Mortz CG, et al. (2018) Omalizumab prevents anaphylaxis and improves symptoms in systemic mastocytosis: efficacy and safety observations. Allergy 73: 230-238. https://doi.org/10.1111/all.13237
|
| [156] |
Gotlib J, Kluin-Nelemans HC, Akin C, et al. (2021) Practical management of adverse events in patients with advanced systemic mastocytosis receiving midostaurin. Expert Opin Biol Ther 21: 487-498. https://doi.org/10.1080/14712598.2021.1837109
|
| [157] |
Gotlib J, Kluin-Nelemans HC, George TI, et al. (2016) Efficacy and safety of midostaurin in advanced systemic mastocytosis. N Engl J Med 374: 2530-2541. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1513098
|
| [158] |
Kudlaty E, Perez M, Stein BL, et al. (2021) Systemic mastocytosis with an associated hematologic neoplasm complicated by recurrent anaphylaxis: prompt resolution of anaphylaxis with the addition of avapritinib. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 9: 2534-2536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2021.02.040
|
| 1. | M. Baira, A. Bekhti Siad, S. Messekine, Electronic, optical and transport properties of perovskite compounds ARhO3 (A = Bi, Lu): A first principle investigations, 2021, 603, 09214526, 412588, 10.1016/j.physb.2020.412588 | |
| 2. | D S Jayalakshmi, T Hrisheekesan, G Akshaya, D Hemanand, W T Chembian, P Arun Prakash, Computational Investigation of Optical, Thermal and Thermoelectric Properties of Cs3P compound, 2021, 1979, 1742-6588, 012055, 10.1088/1742-6596/1979/1/012055 | |
| 3. | Zakaryaa Zarhri, Andres Dominguez Cano, Outmane Oubram, Younes Ziat, Ali Bassam, Optical measurements and Burstein Moss effect in optical properties of Nb-doped BaSnO3 perovskite, 2022, 166, 27730123, 207223, 10.1016/j.micrna.2022.207223 |
Figures(1) / Tables(2)
Amolak S Bansal, Alex Nicholas, Nazira Sumar, Veronica Varney. Mast cells, mediators, and symptomatic activation[J]. AIMS Allergy and Immunology, 2024, 8(1): 34-55. doi: 10.3934/Allergy.2024004
| Types of Polyethylene | Properties | References |
| LLDPE |
ⅰ. The densities of LLDPE vary from 0.926gcm−3 to 0.94gcm−3
ⅱ. the crystallinity is 50–70 % ⅲ. Higher tensile strength ⅳ. Higher impact resistance than LDPE. ⅴ. It is very flexible and elongates under stress ⅵ. It has good resistance to chemicals. ⅶ. It has good electrical properties |
[23,24,29] |
| LDPE |
ⅰ. A high degree of short and long-chain branching.
ⅱ. Density - 0.910–0.940 g/cm3 ⅲ.the crystallinity (below about 50 %) ⅳ. highly malleable ⅴ. Low tensile strength ⅵ. Poor durability. |
[1,23,26] |
| HDPE |
ⅰ. The density is approximately 0.95 g/mL ⅱ. The crystallinity is about 70–90 % ⅲ.High melting point ⅳ. High tensile strength. ⅴ. Rigid, robust, and durable. |
[1,23,30] |
DownLoad:
CSV
| Types of Polyethylene | Properties | References |
| LLDPE |
ⅰ. The densities of LLDPE vary from 0.926gcm−3 to 0.94gcm−3
ⅱ. the crystallinity is 50–70 % ⅲ. Higher tensile strength ⅳ. Higher impact resistance than LDPE. ⅴ. It is very flexible and elongates under stress ⅵ. It has good resistance to chemicals. ⅶ. It has good electrical properties |
[23,24,29] |
| LDPE |
ⅰ. A high degree of short and long-chain branching.
ⅱ. Density - 0.910–0.940 g/cm3 ⅲ.the crystallinity (below about 50 %) ⅳ. highly malleable ⅴ. Low tensile strength ⅵ. Poor durability. |
[1,23,26] |
| HDPE |
ⅰ. The density is approximately 0.95 g/mL ⅱ. The crystallinity is about 70–90 % ⅲ.High melting point ⅳ. High tensile strength. ⅴ. Rigid, robust, and durable. |
[1,23,30] |
