Citation: Hyunok Choi, Mark T. McAuley, David A. Lawrence. Prenatal exposures and exposomics of asthma[J]. AIMS Environmental Science, 2015, 2(1): 87-109. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2015.1.87
[1] | Brian W. Miller, Leonardo Frid, Tony Chang, Nathan Piekielek, Andrew J. Hansen, Jeffrey T. Morisette . Combining state-and-transition simulations and species distribution models to anticipate the effects of climate change. AIMS Environmental Science, 2015, 2(2): 400-426. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2015.2.400 |
[2] | Darrell B. Roundy, April Hulet, Bruce A. Roundy, Ryan R. Jensen, Jordan B. Hinkle, Leann Crook, Steven L. Petersen . Estimating pinyon and juniper cover across Utah using NAIP imagery. AIMS Environmental Science, 2016, 3(4): 765-777. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2016.4.765 |
[3] | Eric Ariel L. Salas, Virginia A. Seamster, Kenneth G. Boykin, Nicole M. Harings, Keith W. Dixon . Modeling the impacts of climate change on Species of Concern (birds) in South Central U.S. based on bioclimatic variables. AIMS Environmental Science, 2017, 4(2): 358-385. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2017.2.358 |
[4] | Ryan G. Howell, Steven L. Petersen . A comparison of change detection measurements using object-based and pixel-based classification methods on western juniper dominated woodlands in eastern Oregon. AIMS Environmental Science, 2017, 4(2): 348-357. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2017.2.348 |
[5] | Kathleen D Reinhardt, Wirdateti, K.AI. Nekaris . Climate-mediated activity of the Javan Slow Loris, Nycticebus javanicus. AIMS Environmental Science, 2016, 3(2): 249-260. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2016.2.249 |
[6] | Muhammad Shahid Iqbal, Muhammad Nauman Ahmad, Nynke Hofstra . The Relationship between Hydro-Climatic Variables and E. coli Concentrations in Surface and Drinking Water of the Kabul River Basin in Pakistan. AIMS Environmental Science, 2017, 4(5): 690-708. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2017.5.690 |
[7] | Megan K. Creutzburg, Emilie B. Henderson, David R. Conklin . Climate change and land management impact rangeland condition and sage-grouse habitat in southeastern Oregon. AIMS Environmental Science, 2015, 2(2): 203-236. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2015.2.203 |
[8] | Catherine S. Jarnevich, Tracy R. Holcombe, Catherine Cullinane Thomas, Leonardo Frid, Aaryn Olsson . Simulating long-term effectiveness and efficiency of management scenarios for an invasive grass. AIMS Environmental Science, 2015, 2(2): 427-447. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2015.2.427 |
[9] | Anna Westin, Tommy Lennartsson, Jan-Olov Björklund . The historical ecology approach in species conservation – Identifying suitable habitat management for the endangered clouded Apollo butterfly (Parnassius mnemosyne L.) in Sweden. AIMS Environmental Science, 2018, 5(4): 244-272. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2018.4.244 |
[10] | Africa de la Hera, Emilio Custodio Gimena, Àngel García Cortés . Evaluating ecosystem services and drivers of change in Spanish groundwater-related wetlands included in the Ramsar Convention. AIMS Environmental Science, 2017, 4(2): 232-250. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2017.2.232 |
Compared to lower elevations, high elevation environments (i.e., alpine zones above the natural treeline) have been considered to be at low risk of plant invasion because of the harsh climatic conditions and lower human population density [1,2,3,4]. However, in the last decade, the presence of alien species in alpine zones has been increasingly documented around the world [4,5,6,7,8], and this trend is postulated to reflect greater human impacts at high elevations [4,9]. Together with increasing anthropogenic influence, propagule pressure and disturbance, climate change may further facilitate establishment of alien species in previously unsuitable environments [10,11,12] by mitigating unfavourable conditions associated with high elevation habitats.
Recent studies suggest that the suite of factors likely to promote range expansion of alien species into high elevation are precisely those that may lead to a steady decline in native species[12,13]. Thus, larger efforts are needed to estimate the risk of invasions into native communities. However, other factors potentially hampering the spread of alien species into alpine zones, such as biotic interactions [14], soil conditions [15] and microsite availability [16,17] may have been overlooked [18]. Therefore, a primary focus of current ecological research is to gain a better understanding of the drivers of invasion in order to develop more targeted management strategies.
As yet, current understanding of the consequences of plant invasion remains limited [19] and this is especially true in alpine zones. In contrast to the many alien herbaceous species that have colonized alpine zones, it might be expected that the establishment of alien trees above the native treeline would result in much more marked changes to ecosystem processes. Examples of alien tree invasions above native treelines are rare, but this phenomenon is increasingly being observed for alien conifer species [20,21,22,23]. This situation is relatively common in some regions of the Southern Hemisphere such as New Zealand, where treelines are composed of slow growing tree species such as Nothofagus sp. that show little or no upward expansion in response to climate change [24]. Such unresponsiveness to climate warming appears due to the many requirements this species has for successful establishment such as shelter, shade, mycorrhiza and nutrients [25]. The low tolerance of native tree species to the harsher climate found at high elevations results in a low competitive ability against invasive conifers [4,26]. Therefore, introduced conifers, such as pines, that are often pioneers and tolerant to temperature and drought stress as well as disturbance, can colonize high elevation habitats with limited interference from native tree species. This invasion has the potential to alter the structure of local treelines and impact subalpine vegetation.
Of particular concern is lodgepole pine, Pinus contorta, which has been widely introduced in several regions of the Southern Hemisphere for wood production, erosion control and forestry purposes [22,23,27,28]. Pinus contorta has been shown to have substantial and long lasting impacts in its invaded ranges, as besides reducing the diversity and abundance of native and endangered species [26], it negatively affects soil carbon and water balance, ultimately facilitating the establishment of other alien species at the expense of the local flora [29].
In New Zealand, P. contorta was introduced at the beginning of the 1900s and“wilding pines”have since spread across the lowlands covering approximately 150, 000 ha by 2001 [30,31]. Multiple introductions exacerbated the invasion process, but provided evidence of the effect of propagule pressure on its spread [32]. Although numerous studies have addressed the invasion of P. contorta at low elevation, similar studies in alpine areas are limited. Thus, recent reports have raised concerns about the risks of spread into alpine areas [33], where P. contorta can recruit above the treeline, located at 1350 masl, in the absence of competition from other trees [23,34]. Although it has been reported that the species can grow well at elevations up to 1600 masl [23], to our knowledge no study has quantified the rate of spread of P. contorta into high elevations. In the present study, we examined the spread of P. contorta from planted stands at one of the few alpine sites in the South Island of New Zealand where planting history and propagule pressure are known. We asked the following questions:
1. How rapid is the spread of P. contorta into alpine areas and is it comparable to rates observed in the lowlands?
2. Does climate variation influence recruitment and, if so, which variables are most important?
3. Is the availability of suitable regeneration microsites an important factor limiting the establishment of P. contorta in alpine areas?
Using the answers to these questions we explore the potential for further P. contorta invasion and discuss possible management options.
The study site was located on a steep, highly eroded east-facing slope in the Craigieburn Range, South Island, New Zealand (43°10’S; 172°45’E). The native treeline-forming species (Nothofagus solandri var. cliffortiodes (Hook. f) Poole) gives way quickly to rocky scree fields, shrub and tussock grasslands above 1370 m [24,25]. As part of a series of forestry trials, two stands of P. contorta spp. contorta were planted above the Nothofagus treeline to examine the elevation limits of commercial forestry. The two stands, approximately 300 m apart, were planted for research purposes in 1962 (24individuals; 1347 masl) and 1964 (multispecies trial planting including Pinus contorta, Pinus ponderosa and Pinus mugo, with a total of 40 individuals; 1388 masl) [25]. These two stands unintentionally provided an opportunity to assess the degree to which P. contorta could establish above the native treeline under conditions of relatively high propagule pressure.
Pinus contortaDougl. ex. Loud., is native to the northwestern region of North America and Canada [35,36], and was initially planted in New Zealand for forestry purposes [8] and erosion control in mountain lands [23]. The species can begin reproducing after as little as five years [37]. Most cones mature within 12 months [38] and, in New Zealand, are non-serotinous [30]. Seeds are released shortly after maturation [39] in early autumn (March in New Zealand) or before the following growing season, generally beginning in October or November [40] when wind speed tends to be greatest [41]. Seeds of P. contorta are smaller than those of most pines [32], weighing approximately 4 mg [42], they are winged [43,44] and can be dispersed by wind up to 40 kilometers[30,37]. The species is shade intolerant [43,44] and previous studies showed that water holding capacity and soil moisture have a critical influence on the germination and early survival of P. contorta in its native range [45,46].
To assess establishment patterns of P. contorta into alpine zones, we established in February 2009 four sampling blocks running upslope starting at 1350 masl up to the maximum elevation reached by P. contorta (see Supporting Information for scheme of the sampling blocks—Figure S1). The maximum elevation was determined after a thorough search for individuals from the edge of the two planted stands to the ridgeline (1790 masl). Sampling blocks were situated between 10 and 150m from the closest planted stand, and the maximum distance between sampling blocks was 120m. Within each sampling block, we established at least five transect belts 50 m long and 2 m wide, with a total of 75 transect belts. Each transect belt ran parallel to the edge of the planted stands at intervals of 12.5 linear m, starting at 1350 m asl and ending at the maximum elevation reached by the species. Five transects were also laid within the planted stands to quantify these populations. The position of each transect belt was determined using a handheld eTrex GPS unit.
We identified and measured all P. contorta stems rooted within each transect. For each stem, we recorded the distance along the transect, stem height, basal diameter, presence of cones, tree class and age estimate. We categorized individuals in four tree classes according to their height and diameter: seedlings (basal diameter < 0.5 cm), saplings (0.5 < basal diameter < 4 cm), sub-adults (4 < basal diameter≤10 cm) and adults (basal diameter > 10 cm). We used two methods to estimate stem age and year of recruitment, we counted internodes [47] for stems with diameters less than 3 cm, and counted the number of rings from increment cores or cross-sectional disks for stems with diameters greater than 3 cm. We cored stems or took disks by sawing stems at 20 cm above the ground because of the difficulty of coring stems at the root collar. We processed cores and disks according to the methods of Stokes and Smiley [48], and subsequently estimated the age by counting the rings with a binocular microscope, correcting for missing rings following Duncan [49]. It is well recognised that age estimates taken from above the root collar will underestimate age since establishment, because of the time taken for stems to grow to coring height [50,51]. To correct for this, we fitted a log-log regression between age and height for those individuals whose age was estimated by counting internodes. This allowed us to estimate the time taken to grow to coring height (on average, 4 years to reach 20 cm height) and so we added 4 years to the ages of the cored and sawed samples to estimate age since establishment (Figure 1).
Microsite occupancy and availability were also assessed along each transect. We determined the microsite into which each P. contorta stem had established by characterizing the area around each stem into six classes (Supporting information—Figure S2): rock outcrop, scree, bare soil, alpine mat (mainly composed of short-statured plants and bryophytes), tussock grassland, and shrubs (Dracophyllum sp., Podocarpus nivalis andAciphylla sp.). Thus we used substrate characteristics as a proxy for the environmental conditions in which P. contorta individuals were growing. Microsite availability along each transect was estimated using a point intercept method, where the microsite was recorded at 1m intervals along the center of each transect (i.e., 50 samples per transect).
Climate data were available from a meteorological station located at 914 masl, 4.2 km from the study area. Monthly temperatures (mean, minimum, maximum) and precipitation were downloaded for the period 1964-2008 (http://cliflo.niwa.co.nz/). We then calculated the annual average temperature and total precipitation for the austral growing (November through April) and dormant (May through October) seasons for each year.
Our data consist of the estimated age structure of P. contorta and the elevation and microsite in which trees were found. We used regression analyses to relate elevation (i.e., distance from the planted stands) to the number of recruits. To investigate population increase of P. contorta and predict its invasion potential, we applied non-linear regressions to population size overtime by fitting two different models that assumed exponential or logistic growth, and compared the fit of these models to the data using AIC. The best model was then used to estimate the rate of population increase when rare (r) and the carrying capacity (K) of the sampled transects. These models assume a smooth rate of increase over time driven by constant values for r and K, but deviations from this average population growth curve will occur if the recruitment rate was lower (if below the curve) or higher (if above the curve) than expected in a given year. Such deviations could be driven by climate variation, with higher rates of recruitment in climatically favourable years and lower rates in less climatically favourable years. To test whether variation in climate could explain deviations in yearly recruitment away from the average population growth curve, we correlated the residuals around the growth curve with seasonal rainfall and temperature data. Furthermore, to allow for potential inaccuracies in our age estimates, we grouped individuals into age intervals of two and four years respectively, to allow for a dating imprecision of±1 or±2 years, and repeated the analysis.
To compare the microsites occupied by P. contorta stems with microsite availability, we first calculated availability as the percentage of all point intercepts classed as each microsite class. We then calculated occupancy as the percentage of microsites occupied by pines within each microsite class. Microsite preference was assessed as the ratio between occupancy and availability [52]. A ratio < 1 indicates that the microsite is occupied by P. contorta less than it would be expected given its availability, a ratio=1 indicates that the microsite is occupied in proportion to its availability, and a ratio > 1 indicates a microsite occupied more often than would be expected given its availability. Significance was evaluated using chi-square tests. All statistical analyses were conducted using the statistical software R 3.1.2 [53].
In total, 242 P. contorta individuals were sampled, with similar numbers of seedlings, (83) saplings (73), and subadults together with adults (86), with over half of the latter being reproductive(56). In total, we found 4 dead individuals, only one of which was found above the planted stands. Nearly one third of all stems (70) occurred within 10 m of the closest planted stand. The remaining individuals occurred up to 435 m linearly from these sources, across an altitudinal range of 272 m, and no stems were found above 1623 masl. Overall, we estimated a density of 290trees/ha. Reproductive stems were observed up to 1601 masl and none of the individuals bearing cones were less than 12 years old. The majority of seedlings (93%) occurred within 10 m of a reproductive stem, but no seedlings were found above 1450 masl, indicating a lack of recent establishment, even though reproduction occurred above this elevation. We did not find evidence of establishment beyond the planted stands until 1987 (Figure 2, 3), over twenty years after the original planting date. Since the late 1980s, establishment has occurred annually up to 1450 masl, whereas above 1450 masl it has been episodic, primarily occurring since the 1990s (Figure 2).
Based on the spatial and temporal patterns of establishment, and the different distribution of tree classes across the elevation range, we divided our sample into two bands: a mid-elevation band (1349-1450 masl) composed of 219 individuals and a high-elevation band (1451-1623 masl) composed of 23 individuals, none of which were seedlings. For the 5 transects measured along the edge of the planted stands, we recorded 156 individuals, with the oldest individual having established by at least 1960. Our age estimates suggest that approximately 25% of these individuals established between 1960 and 1987. Of these stems 18 individuals (12%) established between 1965 and 1987. Seedlings (55/156) and saplings (55/156) both accounted for 35% of stems, and adults and subadults together accounted for 30% of stems.
The number of P. contorta stems recorded on each transect declined with elevation (R2=−0.0247, F=18.84, df=239, p-value < 0.05). The logistic model (AIC=131.2) was chosen over the exponential (AIC=148.2) as the best descriptor of population growth (Figure 3), showing that the cumulative number of individuals increased through time, but that the rate of population growth was slowing. The rate of population growth when rare (r) was estimated as 0.22, and the population carrying capacity on the sampled transects (K) as 529. We did not find any significant correlations between climate variables and deviation in recruitment from the average growth curve (Supporting Information—Table S1, Figure S3). These results were unchanged when individuals were grouped into age-classes of two-and four-year intervals (Supporting Information—Table S1, Figure S4, S5). The prevailing wind direction during the period of seed release since the plantations were established was SE to SW, which was downhill.
The most common available microsites below 1450 masl were scree (51.2%), rock (17.3%), and shrub (11.9%), while above this elevation scree was dominant (78%). However, occupancy by P. contorta was highest in bare soil (76.6%) and alpine mat (48.4%) (Table 1, see Supporting Information—Table S2), which were the preferred habitats for establishment (Figure 4), and in which individuals occurred more than expected based on availability (chi-square: 1116.293, df=5, p-value < 0.05). This preference was consistent across life stages (Table 1).
Microsite | Adults | Subadults | Saplings | Seedlings |
Mat | 6 | 10 | 27 | 19 |
Rock | 3 | 4 | 6 | 5 |
Scree | 1 | 3 | 3 | 3 |
Shrub | 2 | 4 | 7 | 2 |
Soil | 25 | 27 | 25 | 54 |
Tussock | 1 | 0 | 5 | 0 |
Chi-square | χ2 = 68.73 | χ2 = 60.75 | χ2 = 48.06 | χ2 = 156.63 |
df = 5 | df = 5 | df = 5 | df = 5 | |
p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 |
Pinus contorta has invaded alpine areas in the Craigieburn Range in New Zealand, but at a slower rate compared to lowland invasions. Variation in climate did not account for annual fluctuations in recruitment around the overall population growth curve, whereas the availability of favourable regeneration microsites greatly affected species establishment. The limited availability of favourable regeneration microsites, together with the decline in population growth rate over time, suggest that the population of P. contorta at the Craigieburn range may be approaching saturation. However, given the high colonizing ability of the species, constant monitoring and implementation of management strategies are highly desirable.
The increase in population size over time at Craigieburn is consistent with the high invasive potential of P. contorta [55] which is mirrored in the native range where the species is encroaching into meadows with negative effects on plant diversity [56]. In both the native and introduced range the species exhibits a wide tolerance for climate extremes [30,57]. However population growth at the Craigieburn Range may be inflated if it is primarily driven by recruitment of a large number of young stems, which then suffer high mortality. Although we did not monitor mortality, we recorded the presence of dead stems, finding only four dead individuals, three of which were within the planted stands, suggesting relatively low mortality rates of established stems. Our model suggests that P. contorta invasion into high elevations is unlikely to reach densities observed at lower elevations in New Zealand or in the Andes [8,26]. The current population appears to have reached more than half of the maximum number of individuals that can be supported at the study site, as evidenced by the estimated carrying capacity (K = 529). Such a trend is not entirely novel as decreasing density due to competition for limited microsites have been observed previously in New Zealand [47].
At the Craigieburn Range, a temporal lag in establishment is evident. Establishment above the planted stands only commenced in approximately 1987, almost 20 years after planting. Temporal lags in the spread of alien species after their introduction have been observed for pine species [4,58] and may reflect specific life history traits or changes over time in climatic and habitat conditions that assist spread [59]. A similarly low rate of establishment between 1975 and 1987 was observed at the edge of the planted stands, suggesting that the reason for this temporal lag may be at least in part due to unfavourable environmental conditions. In New Zealand, seeds of P. contorta are known to be dispersed over distances up to 40 km [27,30], however in our survey we found that the first individuals to establish were located within about 0.1 km beyond the planted stands in bare soil. Remarkably, this is in contrast with a recent study showing that dispersal ability is a dominant factor at the early stages of a P. contorta invasion [60]. Furthermore, previous studies indicated that P. contorta produce cones as early as at 5 years [37], whereas we found no coning individuals younger than at least 12 years old. Thus both reproduction and establishment appear strongly constrained at these elevations.
Climate, although a critical factor affecting spread of numerous treeline species [61], was not a significant factor accounting for variation in the rate of population increase of P. contorta at our site (Supporting Information—Figure S3). The population has increased relatively steadily over time, suggesting relatively constant conditions for establishment (Figure 3). This suggests P. contorta recruitment is not tightly linked to climatic variation, which is consistent with the wide environmental tolerance of the species [62].
When looking at microsites, P. contorta stems were found mostly in bare soil and alpine mats, despite the relatively low availability of these two microsites classes (Table 1, Figure 4). Bare soil and alpine mats retain humidity that is beneficial for seedling survival [27], whereas tussock and shrubs may result in stronger competition for water and light especially during the early life stages [26,39,43]. Conversely, on rocky outcrops and scree, seedlings are exposed to harsh conditions and water run-off rapidly causes drought stress. Pinus contorta seedlings and saplings have shallow roots that penetrate soil only up to a depth of 10–15 cm, thus the species is highly susceptible to drought [35,36,45]. This effect may be especially relevant in high elevation habitats where steep slopes and shallow soil do not provide high water retention.
At our study site, the spread of P. contorta appears to be limited by source effects (i.e. higher establishment occurring close to the planted stands), longer time to reproduction and availability of microsites with higher potential water availability. Limited availability of favourable microsites may likely hinder successful establishment of seedlings, causing death during early life stages and curbing population growth rates.
There is growing consensus among management and conservation experts that preventing recruitment of P. contorta (and in general alien conifers) should be emphasized over removing existing stands [33]. The focus on prevention is not only motivated by the elevated cost of removal of wilding conifers, but also by the fact that alien conifers, P. contorta among them, permanently offset soil abiotic and biotic properties preventing the recolonization of native species. Studies have shown that alien pines lead to soil acidification and to a reduction of exchangeable nutrients [63,64]. Furthermore, alien pines have been associated with a reduction of mycorrhizal species diversity compared to that found in Nothofagus forests [29,65]. Research by Paul & Ledgard [66] also showed that dead pine stands can have deleterious effects on the local vegetation as they favour the invasion of exotic grasses over native species [21,29].
In such a framework, our results fill a knowledge gap, as most of the data used by conservation strategists come from studies conducted at low elevation. Consistent with other studies [4,26], we show that the establishment of P. contorta into high elevation, although less dramatic than at lower elevations, remains a potentially large problem, as at high elevation there are no native species that can effectively outcompete and replace it.
Although considerable effort has been invested in eradicating P. contorta the species is still widespread in New Zealand. As highlighted by our results and by previous findings [67], not all microsites are favourable to the establishment of P. contorta. Thus, one step would be to increase the cover of native species such as tussock and shrubs where the survival of seedlings is hindered by shading and competition. This could be implemented by ameliorating grasslands through addition of fertilizer [31], which would increase their competitive ability against seedlings in the early life stages[68]. In addition, consistent with previous research [2], we recommend special attention should be paid to the removal of juvenile P. contorta in alpine areas, before individuals start coning, a practice that will prevent further spread at a lower economic and ecological cost compared to the removal of reproductive individuals. The unique setting of our study site, namely known initial propagule pressure and date of planting, was also its main limitation, as we could not extend our survey to other sites. Therefore, we have to be cautious in generalizing our results, and further studies should be carried out to validate the feasibility of our recommendations. Finally, our results suggest a physiological limit to expansion that will likely transfer to other sites; principally the availability of suitable microsites that limit population growth and spread. Regardless, colonization above the treeline should not be underestimated as, due to the lack of competitors, P. contorta cannot be replaced by native species at later successional stages [33,69] and should be closely monitored.
Our study found that Pinus contorta has been spreading into high elevation subsequent to plantings established in the 1960s at the Craigieburn Range. The establishment pattern is mainly constrained by limited availability of favourable microsites, whereas climate variation had surprisingly little effect on the rate of population growth. Our findings suggest that P. contorta may be approaching saturation of favourable microsites and thus it may not represent an immediate threat to high elevation native species. However, considering the potential for long distance dispersal and pioneer ability of this species, we recommend that studies examine in more detail the patterns of establishment in different mountain areas of New Zealand. Furthermore, constant monitoring of such populations is desirable to allow for early detection and removal of seedlings.
We thank Nicholas Ledgard and Ellen Cieraad for technical advice, and Hamish Maule and Alex Shim for field assistance. Financial support for ST was provided by a Fellowship from Università degli Studi di Milano and to MAH by the New Zealand International Doctoral Research Scholarship. The research was supported by Lincoln University.
We declare that we do not have any conflicts of interest.
[1] |
Adamko DJ, Sykes BD, Rowe BH (2012) The metabolomics of asthma: Novel diagnostic potential. Chest 141: 1295-1302. doi: 10.1378/chest.11-2028
![]() |
[2] | Wright RJ (2008) Stress and childhood asthma risk: overlapping evidence from animal studies and epidemiologic research. Allergy Asthma Clin Immun 4: 29. |
[3] | Committee on the Assessment of Asthma and Indoor Air (2000) Clearing the Air:Asthma and Indoor Air Exposures; Division of Health Promotion DP, Institute of Medicine, editor: The National Academies Press. |
[4] |
Asher MI, Montefort S, Björkstén B, et al. (2006) Worldwide time trends in the prevalence of symptoms of asthma, allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, and eczema in childhood: ISAAC Phases One and Three repeat multicountry cross-sectional surveys. Lancet 368: 733-743. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69283-0
![]() |
[5] |
Asher M, Keil U, Anderson H, et al. (1995) International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC): rationale and methods. Eur Respir J 8: 483-491. doi: 10.1183/09031936.95.08030483
![]() |
[6] |
Brim SN, Rudd RA, Funk RH, et al. (2008) Asthma Prevalence Among US Children in Underrepresented Minority Populations: American Indian/Alaska Native, Chinese, Filipino, and Asian Indian. Pediatrics 122: e217-e222. doi: 10.1542/peds.2007-3825
![]() |
[7] |
Kamble S, Bharmal M (2009) Incremental direct expenditure of treating asthma in the United States. J Asthma 46: 73-80. doi: 10.1080/02770900802503107
![]() |
[8] | Akinbami OJ, Moorman JE, Liu X (2011) Asthma prevalence, health care use, and mortality: United States, 2005-2009: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics. |
[9] |
Bryant-Stephens T (2009) Asthma disparities in urban environments. J Allergy Clinl Immunol 123: 1199-1206; quiz 1207-1198. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2009.04.030
![]() |
[10] |
Torgerson DG, Ampleford EJ, Chiu GY, et al. (2011) Meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies of asthma in ethnically diverse North American populations. Nat Genet 43: 887-892. doi: 10.1038/ng.888
![]() |
[11] |
Heinrich J (2011) Influence of indoor factors in dwellings on the development of childhood asthma. Int J Hyg Envir Heal 214: 1-25. doi: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2010.08.009
![]() |
[12] |
Busse PJ, Wang JJ, Halm EA (2005) Allergen sensitization evaluation and allergen avoidance education in an inner-city adult cohort with persistent asthma. J Allergy Clinl Immunol 116: 146-152. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2005.03.031
![]() |
[13] |
Jaakkola JJ, Jaakkola MS (2006) Professional cleaning and asthma. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol 6: 85-90. doi: 10.1097/01.all.0000216849.64828.55
![]() |
[14] | Jaakkola MS, Jaakkola JJK (2004) Indoor Molds and Asthma in Adults. Advances in Applied Microbiology: Academic Press. pp. 309-338. |
[15] |
Masoli M, Fabian D, Holt S, et al. (2004) Review article The global burden of asthma: executive summary of the GINA Dissemination Committee Report. Allergy 59: 469-478. doi: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.2004.00526.x
![]() |
[16] |
Yang IV, Schwartz DA (2012) Epigenetic mechanisms and the development of asthma. J Allergy Clin Immun 130: 1243-1255. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2012.07.052
![]() |
[17] |
Borish L, Culp JA (2008) Asthma: a syndrome composed of heterogeneous diseases. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunology Today 101: 1-8. doi: 10.1016/S1081-1206(10)60826-5
![]() |
[18] |
Ho S-M (2010) Environmental epigenetics of asthma: an update. J Allergy Clinl Immunol 126: 453-465. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2010.07.030
![]() |
[19] |
Ege MJ, Mayer M, Normand A-C, et al. (2011) Exposure to environmental microorganisms and childhood asthma. New Engl J Med 364: 701-709. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1007302
![]() |
[20] |
Hansel TT, Johnston SL, Openshaw PJ (2013) Microbes and mucosal immune responses in asthma. Lancet 381: 861-873. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)62202-8
![]() |
[21] |
Wild CP (2005) Complementing the genome with an "exposome": the outstanding challenge of environmental exposure measurement in molecular epidemiology. Cancer Epidem Biomar 14: 1847-1850. doi: 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-05-0456
![]() |
[22] |
Larsson M, Weiss B, Janson S, et al. (2009) Associations between indoor environmental factors and parental-reported autistic spectrum disorders in children 6-8 years of age. Neurotoxicology 30: 822-831. doi: 10.1016/j.neuro.2009.01.011
![]() |
[23] | Bornehag CG, Sundell J, Sigsgaard T (2004) Dampness in buildings and health (DBH). Report from an on-going epidemiological investigation on the association between indoor environmental factors and health effects among children in Sweden. Indoor Air 14: 59-66. |
[24] | Mendell MJ, Mirer AG, Cheung K, et al. (2011) Respiratory and Allergic Health Effects of Dampness, Mold, and Dampness-Related Agents: A Review of the Epidemiologic Evidence. Environ Health Perspect 119. |
[25] |
Mendell MJ (2007) Indoor residential chemical emissions as risk factors for respiratory and allergic effects in children: a review. Indoor Air 17: 259-277. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0668.2007.00478.x
![]() |
[26] |
Fang L, Clausen G, Fanger PO (1998) Impact of temperature and humidity on the perception of indoor air quality. Indoor air 8: 80-90. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0668.1998.t01-2-00003.x
![]() |
[27] | Rosenbaum PF, Crawford JA, Anagnost SE, et al. (2009) Indoor airborne fungi and wheeze in the first year of life among a cohort of infants at risk for asthma. J Expos Sci Environ Epidemiol 20: 503-515. |
[28] | Eurostat - The Statistical Office of the European Union (2010) Europe in Figures - EUROSTAT yearbook 2010. pp. Chapter 6. Living Conditions and Welfare. |
[29] |
Samet JM, Spengler JD (2003) Indoor environments and health: moving into the 21st century. Am J Public Health 93: 1489-1493. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.93.9.1489
![]() |
[30] | Institute of Medicine (2004) Damp Indoor Spaces and Health. New York: The National Academies. |
[31] |
Weschler CJ (2009) Changes in indoor pollutants since the 1950s. Atmos Environ 43: 153-169. doi: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.09.044
![]() |
[32] |
Bönisch U, Böhme A, Kohajda T, et al. (2012) Volatile Organic Compounds Enhance Allergic Airway Inflammation in an Experimental Mouse Model. PLoS ONE 7: e39817. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0039817
![]() |
[33] |
Bornehag CG, Sundell J, Weschler CJ, et al. (2004) The association between asthma and allergic symptoms in children and phthalates in house dust: a nested case-control study. Environ health perspect 112: 1393-1397. doi: 10.1289/ehp.7187
![]() |
[34] | Herberth G, Herzog T, Hinz D, et al. (2012) Renovation activities during pregnancy induce a Th2 shift in fetal but not in maternal immune system. Int J Hyg Environ Health. |
[35] | Bornehag CG, Sundell J, Hagerhed-Engman L, et al. (2005) "Dampness" at home and its association with airway, nose and skin symptoms among 10 851 preschool children in Sweden: a cross sectional study. Indoor Air 15: 48-55. |
[36] |
Kim JL, Elfman L, Mi Y, et al. (2007) Indoor molds, bacteria, microbial volatile organic compounds and plasticizers in schools--associations with asthma and respiratory symptoms in pupils. Indoor Air 17: 153-163. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0668.2006.00466.x
![]() |
[37] |
Wieslander G, Norback D (2010) Ocular symptoms, tear film stability, nasal patency, and biomarkers in nasal lavage in indoor painters in relation to emissions from water-based paint. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 83: 733-741. doi: 10.1007/s00420-010-0552-0
![]() |
[38] |
Wieslander G, Norback D (2010) A field study on clinical signs and symptoms in cleaners at floor polish removal and application in a Swedish hospital. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 83: 585-591. doi: 10.1007/s00420-010-0531-5
![]() |
[39] |
Wieslander G, Norback D, Edling C (1994) Occupational exposure to water based paint and symptoms from the skin and eyes. Occup Environ Med 51: 181-186. doi: 10.1136/oem.51.3.181
![]() |
[40] |
Wieslander G, Norback D, Edling C (1997) Airway symptoms among house painters in relation to exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCS)--a longitudinal study. Ann Occup Hyg 41: 155-166. doi: 10.1093/annhyg/41.2.155
![]() |
[41] |
Wieslander G, Norback D, Nordstrom K, et al. (1999) Nasal and ocular symptoms, tear film stability and biomarkers in nasal lavage, in relation to building-dampness and building design in hospitals. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 72: 451-461. doi: 10.1007/s004200050398
![]() |
[42] |
Wieslander G, Kumlin A, Norback D (2010) Dampness and 2-ethyl-1-hexanol in floor construction of rehabilitation center: Health effects in staff. Arch Environ Occup Health 65: 3-11. doi: 10.1080/19338240903390248
![]() |
[43] |
Wieslander G, Lindgren T, Norback D, et al. (2000) Changes in the ocular and nasal signs and symptoms of aircrews in relation to the ban on smoking on intercontinental flights. Scand J Work Environ Health 26: 514-522. doi: 10.5271/sjweh.576
![]() |
[44] |
Wolkoff P, Schneider T, Kildesø J, et al. (1998) Risk in cleaning: chemical and physical exposure. Scie Total Environt 215: 135-156. doi: 10.1016/S0048-9697(98)00110-7
![]() |
[45] |
Zock JP, Plana E, Jarvis D, et al. (2007) The use of household cleaning sprays and adult asthma: an international longitudinal study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 176: 735-741. doi: 10.1164/rccm.200612-1793OC
![]() |
[46] |
Choi H, Schmidbauer N, Sundell J, et al. (2010) Common household chemicals and the allergy risks in pre-school age children. PLoS One 5: e13423. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013423
![]() |
[47] |
Ernstgård L, Lof A, Wieslander G, et al. (2007) Acute effects of some volatile organic compounds emitted from water-based paints. J Occup Environ Med 49: 880-889. doi: 10.1097/JOM.0b013e3181161ced
![]() |
[48] | IARC (2006) Formaldehyde, 2-Butoxyethanol and 1-tert-Butoxypropan-2-ol: Summary of Data Reported and Evaluation. In: ORGANIZATION WH, editor. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Lyon: WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION. |
[49] | Garlantézec R, Warembourg C, Monfort C, et al. (2013) Urinary glycol ether metabolites in women and time to pregnancy: the PELAGIE cohort. Environ Health Perspect 121: 1167-1173. |
[50] |
Korpi A, Järnberg J, Pasanen A-L (2009) Microbial volatile organic compounds. Crit rev toxicol 39: 139-193. doi: 10.1080/10408440802291497
![]() |
[51] | Korpi A, Pasanen A-L (1998) Volatile Compounds Originating for Mixed Microbial Cultures on Building Materials under various. Appl Environ Microb 64: 2914. |
[52] | Norback D, Wieslander G, Nordstr K, et al. (2000) Asthma symptoms in relation to measured building dampness in upper concrete floor construction, and 2-ethyl-1-hexanol in indoor air. Int J Tuberc Lung D 4: 1016-1025. |
[53] |
Nalli S, Horn OJ, Grochowalski AR, et al. (2006) Origin of 2-ethylhexanol as a VOC. Environ Pollut 140: 181-185. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2005.06.018
![]() |
[54] |
Goliff WS, Fitz DR, Cocker K, et al. (2012) Ambient measurements of 2,2,4-trimethyl, 1,3-pentanediol monoisobutyrate in Southern California. J Air Waste Manage 62: 680-685. doi: 10.1080/10962247.2012.666223
![]() |
[55] |
Järnström H, Saarela K, Kalliokoski P, et al. (2008) Comparison of VOC and ammonia emissions from individual PVC materials, adhesives and from complete structures. Environ Int 34: 420-427. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2007.09.011
![]() |
[56] |
Maddalena R, Russell M, Sullivan DP, et al. (2009) Formaldehyde and Other Volatile Organic Chemical Emissions in Four FEMA Temporary Housing Units. Environmen Sci Technol 43: 5626-5632. doi: 10.1021/es9011178
![]() |
[57] | Wieslander G, Norback D, Bjornsson E, et al. (1997) Asthma and the indoor environment: the significance of emission of formaldehyde and volatile organic compounds from newly painted indoor surfaces. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 69: 115-124. |
[58] |
Kempf M, Ramm S, Feuerbach T, et al. (2009) Occurrence of 2,2,4-trimethyl-1,3-pentanediol monoisobutyrate (Texanol®) in foods packed in polystyrene and polypropylene cups. Food Addit Contam A 26: 563-567. doi: 10.1080/02652030802562920
![]() |
[59] |
Sly PD, Boner AL, Björksten B, et al. (2008) Early identification of atopy in the prediction of persistent asthma in children. Lancet 372: 1100-1106. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61451-8
![]() |
[60] |
Couraud S, Zalcman G, Milleron B, et al. (2012) Lung cancer in never smokers - A review. Eur J Cancer 48: 1299-1311. doi: 10.1016/j.ejca.2012.03.007
![]() |
[61] |
Wang L, Pinkerton KE (2007) Air pollutant effects on fetal and early postnatal development. Birth Defects Res Part C: Embryo Today: Rev 81: 144-154. doi: 10.1002/bdrc.20097
![]() |
[62] |
Wigle DT, Arbuckle TE, Walker M, et al. (2007) Environmental Hazards: Evidence for Effects on Child Health. J Toxicol Environmen Health B 10: 3-39. doi: 10.1080/10937400601034563
![]() |
[63] |
Burke H, Leonardi-Bee J, Hashim A, et al. (2012) Prenatal and Passive Smoke Exposure and Incidence of Asthma and Wheeze: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Pediatrics 129: 735-744. doi: 10.1542/peds.2011-2196
![]() |
[64] | Chambers DM, Ocariz JM, McGuirk MF, et al. (2011) Impact of cigarette smoking on Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) blood levels in the U.S. Population: NHANES 2003-2004. Environ Int 37: 1321-1328. |
[65] | Gilbert CR, Arum SM, Smith CM (2009) Vitamin D deficiency and chronic lung disease. Can Respir J: Journal of the Canadian Thoracic Society 16: 75. |
[66] |
Mansbach JM, Ginde AA, Camargo CA (2009) Serum 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Levels Among US Children Aged 1 to 11 Years: Do Children Need More Vitamin D? Pediatrics 124: 1404-1410. doi: 10.1542/peds.2008-2041
![]() |
[67] |
Zittermann A, Dembinski J, Stehle P (2004) Low vitamin D status is associated with low cord blood levels of the immunosuppressive cytokine interleukin-10. Pediatric Allergy Immunol 15: 242-246. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3038.2004.00140.x
![]() |
[68] | Pfeffer PE, Hawrylowicz CM (2012) Vitamin D and lung disease. Thorax. |
[69] |
Bozzetto S, Carraro S, Giordano G, et al. (2012) Asthma, allergy and respiratory infections: the vitamin D hypothesis. Allergy 67: 10-17. doi: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.2011.02711.x
![]() |
[70] |
Kozlowska E, Krzystyniak K, Drela N, et al. (1996) Thymus-directed immunotoxicity of airborne dust particles from Upper Silesia (Poland) under acute extrapulmonary studies in mice. J Toxicol Environmen Health 49: 563-579. doi: 10.1080/009841096160628
![]() |
[71] |
Busse W, Banks-Schlegel S, Noel P, et al. (2004) Future Research Directions in Asthma. Am J Resp Crit Care 170: 683-690. doi: 10.1164/rccm.200311-1539WS
![]() |
[72] | Holt PG, Macaubas C, Stumbles PA, et al. (1999) The role of allergy in the development of asthma. Nature 402: B12-17. |
[73] |
Herberth G, Heinrich J, Röder S, et al. (2010) Reduced IFN-γ- and enhanced IL-4-producing CD4+ cord blood T cells are associated with a higher risk for atopic dermatitis during the first 2 yr of life. Pediatric Allergy Immunol 21: 5-13. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3038.2009.00890.x
![]() |
[74] |
Herberth G, Hinz D, Roder S, et al. (2011) Maternal immune status in pregnancy is related to offspring's immune responses and atopy risk. Allergy 66: 1065-1074. doi: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.2011.02587.x
![]() |
[75] |
Lehmann I, Thoelke A, Rehwagen M, et al. (2002) The influence of maternal exposure to volatile organic compounds on the cytokine secretion profile of neonatal T cells. Environ Toxicol 17: 203-210. doi: 10.1002/tox.10055
![]() |
[76] |
Lehmann I, Thoelke A, Weiss M, et al. (2002) T cell reactivity in neonates from an East and a West German city - results of the LISA study. Allergy 57: 129-136. doi: 10.1046/j.0105-4538.2002.00001.x
![]() |
[77] |
Koike Y, Hisada T, Utsugi M, et al. (2007) Glutathione redox regulates airway hyperresponsiveness and airway inflammation in mice. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 37: 322-329. doi: 10.1165/rcmb.2006-0423OC
![]() |
[78] |
Kuipers H, Lambrecht BN (2004) The interplay of dendritic cells, Th2 cells and regulatory T cells in asthma. Curr Opin Immunol 16: 702-708. doi: 10.1016/j.coi.2004.09.010
![]() |
[79] | Holgate ST, Davies DE, Powell RM, et al. (2007) Local genetic and environmental factors in asthma disease pathogenesis: chronicity and persistence mechanisms. 29: 793-803. |
[80] |
Ober C, Hoffjan S (2006) Asthma genetics 2006: the long and winding road to gene discovery. Genes Immun 7: 95-100. doi: 10.1038/sj.gene.6364284
![]() |
[81] |
Bilbo SD (2013) programming of neuroendocrine function by early-life experience: a critical role for the immune system. Horm Behav 63: 684-691. doi: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2013.02.017
![]() |
[82] |
Mandal M, Donnelly R, Elkabes S, et al. (2013) Maternal immune stimulation during pregnancy shapes the immunological phenotype of offspring. Brain Behav Immun 33: 33-45. doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2013.04.012
![]() |
[83] |
Bilbo SD, Schwarz JM (2012) The immune system and developmental programming of brain and behavior. Front Neuroendocrinol 33: 267-286. doi: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2012.08.006
![]() |
[84] |
Cory-Slechta DA, Virgolini MB, Rossi-George A, et al. (2008) Lifetime consequences of combined maternal lead and stress. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 102: 218-227. doi: 10.1111/j.1742-7843.2007.00189.x
![]() |
[85] |
Rappaport SM (2011) Implications of the exposome for exposure science. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 21: 5-9. doi: 10.1038/jes.2010.50
![]() |
[86] |
Lewis R, Demmelmair H, Gaillard R, et al. (2013) The placental exposome: placental determinants of fetal adiposity and postnatal body composition. Ann Nutr Metab 63: 208-215. doi: 10.1159/000355222
![]() |
[87] | Miller GW, Jones DP (2013) The nature of nurture: refining the definition of the exposome. Toxicol Sci: kft251. |
[88] |
Vineis P, Veldhoven K, Chadeau‐Hyam M, et al. (2013) Advancing the application of omics‐based biomarkers in environmental epidemiology. Environ Mol Mutagen 54: 461-467. doi: 10.1002/em.21764
![]() |
[89] |
Nicholson JK, Wilson ID (2003) Understanding'global'systems biology: metabonomics and the continuum of metabolism. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2: 668-676. doi: 10.1038/nrd1157
![]() |
[90] |
Thacher JD, Gruzieva O, Pershagen G, et al. (2014) Pre- and Postnatal Exposure to Parental Smoking and Allergic Disease Through Adolescence. Pediatrics 134: 428-434. doi: 10.1542/peds.2014-0427
![]() |
[91] |
Patel MM, Quinn JW, Jung KH, et al. (2011) Traffic density and stationary sources of air pollution associated with wheeze, asthma, and immunoglobulin E from birth to age 5 years among New York City children. Environ Res 111: 1222-1229. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2011.08.004
![]() |
[92] |
Janssen B, Godderis L, Pieters N, et al. (2013) Placental DNA hypomethylation in association with particulate air pollution in early life. Part Fibre Toxicol 10: 22. doi: 10.1186/1743-8977-10-22
![]() |
[93] |
Janssen B, Munters E, Pieters N, et al. (2012) Placental Mitochondrial DNA Content and Particulate Air Pollution during in Utero Life. Environ Health Perspect 120: 1346-1352. doi: 10.1289/ehp.1104458
![]() |
[94] |
Lu L-JW, Anderson LM, Jones AB, et al. (1993) Persistence, gestation stage-dependent formation and interrelationship of benzo[a]pyrene-induced DNA adducts in mothers, placentae and fetuses of Erythrocebus patas monkeys. Carcinogenesis 14: 1805-1813. doi: 10.1093/carcin/14.9.1805
![]() |
[95] |
Bradding P, Walls AF, Holgate ST (2006) The role of the mast cell in the pathophysiology of asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 117: 1277-1284. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2006.02.039
![]() |
[96] |
Brightling CE, Bradding P, Symon FA, et al. (2002) Mast-cell infiltration of airway smooth muscle in asthma. N Engl J Med 346: 1699-1705. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa012705
![]() |
[97] |
Peachell P (2005) Targeting the mast cell in asthma. Curr opin pharmacol 5: 251-256. doi: 10.1016/j.coph.2005.03.001
![]() |
[98] |
Kleeberger SR, Ohtsuka Y, Zhang L-Y, et al. (2001) Airway responses to chronic ozone exposure are partially mediated through mast cells. J Appl Physiol 90: 713-723. doi: 10.1063/1.1379355
![]() |
[99] |
Koren HS, Hatch GE, Graham DE (1990) Nasal lavage as a tool in assessing acute inflammation in response to inhaled pollutants. Toxicology 60: 15-25. doi: 10.1016/0300-483X(90)90159-E
![]() |
[100] |
Schierhorn K, Zhang M, Matthias C, et al. (1999) Influence of ozone and nitrogen dioxide on histamine and interleukin formation in a human nasal mucosa culture system. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 20: 1013-1019. doi: 10.1165/ajrcmb.20.5.3268
![]() |
[101] |
Shields RL, Gold WM (1987) Effect of inhaled ozone on lung histamine in conscious guinea pigs. Environ Res 42: 435-445. doi: 10.1016/S0013-9351(87)80211-6
![]() |
[102] |
Stenfors N, Pourazar J, Blomberg A, et al. (2002) Effect of ozone on bronchial mucosal inflammation in asthmatic and healthy subjects. Respir Med 96: 352-358. doi: 10.1053/rmed.2001.1265
![]() |
[103] |
Stenfors N, Bosson J, Helleday R, et al. (2010) Ozone exposure enhances mast-cell inflammation in asthmatic airways despite inhaled corticosteroid therapy. Inhal Toxicol 22: 133-139. doi: 10.3109/08958370903005736
![]() |
[104] |
Vagaggini B, Taccola M, Conti I, et al. (2001) Budesonide reduces neutrophilic but not functional airway response to ozone in mild asthmatics. Am J Resp Crit Care 164: 2172-2176. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.164.12.2009090
![]() |
[105] |
Janssen BG, Munters E, Pieters N, et al. (2012) Placental mitochondrial DNA content and particulate air pollution during in utero life. Environ Health Perspect 120: 1346-1352. doi: 10.1289/ehp.1104458
![]() |
[106] |
Prahalad A, Manchester D, Hsu I, et al. (1999) Human placental microsomal activation and DNA adduction by air pollutants. B Environ Contam Tox 62: 93-100. doi: 10.1007/s001289900846
![]() |
[107] |
Rocha e Silva IR, Lichtenfels AJF, Amador Pereira LA, et al. (2008) Effects of ambient levels of air pollution generated by traffic on birth and placental weights in mice. Fertil Steril 90: 1921-1924. doi: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2007.10.001
![]() |
[108] |
Topinka J, Binkova B, Mračková G, et al. (1997) DNA adducts in human placenta as related to air pollution and to GSTM1 genotype. Mutatio Res-Gen- Tox En 390: 59-68. doi: 10.1016/S0165-1218(96)00166-8
![]() |
[109] |
Veras MM, Damaceno-Rodrigues NR, Caldini EG, et al. (2008) Particulate urban air pollution affects the functional morphology of mouse placenta. Biol Reprod 79: 578-584. doi: 10.1095/biolreprod.108.069591
![]() |
[110] |
Fujimoto A, Tsukue N, Watanabe M, et al. (2005) Diesel exhaust affects immunological action in the placentas of mice. Environ Toxicol 20: 431-440. doi: 10.1002/tox.20129
![]() |
[111] | Menzies F, Shepherd M, Nibbs R, et al. (2010) The role of mast cells and their mediators in reproduction, pregnancy and labour. Hum reprod update: dmq053. |
[112] | Woidacki K, Jensen F, Zenclussen AC (2013) Mast cells as novel mediators of reproductive processes. Front Immunol 4. |
[113] | Szewczyk G, Pyzlak M, Klimkiewicz J, et al. (2012) Mast cells and histamine: do they influence placental vascular network and development in preeclampsia? Mediators Inflamm 2012. |
[114] | Dadvand P, Figueras F, Basagana X, et al. (2013) Ambient air pollution and preeclampsia: a spatiotemporal analysis. Environ Health Perspect 121: 1365-1371. |
[115] |
Lee PC, Roberts JM, Catov JM, et al. (2013) First trimester exposure to ambient air pollution, pregnancy complications and adverse birth outcomes in Allegheny County, PA. Matern Child Health J 17: 545-555. doi: 10.1007/s10995-012-1028-5
![]() |
[116] | Pereira G, Haggar F, Shand AW, et al. (2012) Association between pre-eclampsia and locally derived traffic-related air pollution: a retrospective cohort study. J Epidemiol Commun H |
[117] |
Woo Y, Jeong D, Chung DH, et al. (2014) The Roles of Innate Lymphoid Cells in the Development of Asthma. Immune network 14: 171-181. doi: 10.4110/in.2014.14.4.171
![]() |
[118] | Vroman H, van den Blink B, Kool M (2014) Mode of dendritic cell activation; the decisive hand in Th2/Th17 cell differentiation. Implications in asthma severity? Immunobiology. |
[119] |
Murata Y, Shimamura T, Hamuro J (2002) The polarization of Th1/Th2 balance is dependent on the intracellular thiol redox status of macrophages due to the distinctive cytokine production. Inter Immunol 14: 201-212. doi: 10.1093/intimm/14.2.201
![]() |
[120] |
Peterson JD, Herzenberg LA, Vasquez K, et al. (1998) Glutathione levels in antigen-presenting cells modulate Th1 versus Th2 response patterns. PNAS 95: 3071-3076. doi: 10.1073/pnas.95.6.3071
![]() |
[121] | Tuzova M, Jean J-C, Hughey RP, et al. (2014) Inhibiting lung lining fluid glutathione metabolism with GGsTop as a novel treatment for asthma. Front Pharmacol 5. |
[122] |
Perzanowski MS, Miller RL, Tang D, et al. (2010) Prenatal acetaminophen exposure and risk of wheeze at age 5 years in an urban low-income cohort. Thorax 65: 118-123. doi: 10.1136/thx.2009.121459
![]() |
[123] | Penn AL, Rouse RL, Horohov DW, et al. (2007) In utero exposure to environmental tobacco smoke potentiates adult responses to allergen in BALB/c mice. Environ health perspect: 548-555. |
[124] |
Raherison C, Pénard-Morand C, Moreau D, et al. (2007) In utero and childhood exposure to parental tobacco smoke, and allergies in schoolchildren. Resp med 101: 107-117. doi: 10.1016/j.rmed.2006.04.010
![]() |
[125] |
Jedrychowski WA, Perera FP, Majewska R, et al. (2014) Separate and joint effects of tranplacental and postnatal inhalatory exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Prospective birth cohort study on wheezing events. Pediatr Pulmonol 49: 162-172. doi: 10.1002/ppul.22923
![]() |
[126] | Hansen S, Strøm M, Olsen SF, et al. (2013) Maternal concentrations of persistent organochlorine pollutants and the risk of asthma in offspring: results from a prospective cohort with 20 years of follow-up. |
[127] | Whyatt RM, Perzanowski MS, Just AC, et al. (2014) Asthma in Inner-City Children at 5-11 Years of Age and Prenatal Exposure to Phthalates: The Columbia Center for Children’s Environmental Health Cohort. Environ Health Perspect. |
[128] |
Spanier AJ, Kahn RS, Kunselman AR, et al. (2012) Prenatal exposure to bisphenol A and child wheeze from birth to 3 years of age. Environ health perspects 120: 916. doi: 10.1289/ehp.1104175
![]() |
[129] |
Stockinger B, Meglio PD, Gialitakis M, et al. (2014) The Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor: Multitasking in the Immune System. Annu rev immunol 32: 403-432. doi: 10.1146/annurev-immunol-032713-120245
![]() |
[130] |
Krüger T, Long M, Bonefeld-Jørgensen EC (2008) Plastic components affect the activation of the aryl hydrocarbon and the androgen receptor. Toxicology 246: 112-123. doi: 10.1016/j.tox.2007.12.028
![]() |
[131] |
Cayrol C, Girard J-P (2014) IL-33: an alarmin cytokine with crucial roles in innate immunity, inflammation and allergy. Curr Opin Immunol 31: 31-37. doi: 10.1016/j.coi.2014.09.004
![]() |
[132] |
Allakhverdi Z, Comeau MR, Smith DE, et al. (2009) CD34+ hemopoietic progenitor cells are potent effectors of allergic inflammation. J Allergy Clinl Immunol 123: 472-478. e471. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2008.10.022
![]() |
[133] |
Préfontaine D, Lajoie-Kadoch S, Foley S, et al. (2009) Increased expression of IL-33 in severe asthma: evidence of expression by airway smooth muscle cells. J Immunol 183: 5094-5103. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.0802387
![]() |
[134] |
Forsythe P, Ennis M (1999) Adenosine, mast cells and asthma. Inflamm Res 48: 301-307. doi: 10.1007/s000110050464
![]() |
[135] | Gao Y-d, Cao J, Li P, et al. (2014) Th2 cytokine-primed airway smooth muscle cells induce mast cell chemotaxis via secretion of ATP. J Asthma: 1-21. |
[136] |
Mills KH, Dungan LS, Jones SA, et al. (2013) The role of inflammasome-derived IL-1 in driving IL-17 responses. J Leukoc Biol 93: 489-497. doi: 10.1189/jlb.1012543
![]() |
[137] |
Besnard A-G, Togbe D, Couillin I, et al. (2012) Inflammasome-IL-1-Th17 response in allergic lung inflammation. J Mol Cell Biol 4: 3-10. doi: 10.1093/jmcb/mjr042
![]() |
[138] |
Rappaport SM (2012) Biomarkers intersect with the exposome. Biomarkers 17: 483-489. doi: 10.3109/1354750X.2012.691553
![]() |
[139] |
Holmes E, Loo R, Stamler J, et al. (2008) Human metabolic phenotype diversity and its association with diet and blood pressure. Nature 453: 396 - 400. doi: 10.1038/nature06882
![]() |
[140] |
Tsai W, Chung R (2010) Viral hepatocarcinogenesis. Oncogene 29: 2309-2324. doi: 10.1038/onc.2010.36
![]() |
[141] |
Nicholson JK, Holmes E, Wilson ID (2005) Gut microorganisms, mammalian metabolism and personalized health care. Nat Rev Microb 3: 431-438. doi: 10.1038/nrmicro1152
![]() |
[142] |
Rappaport SM, Smith MT (2010) Environment and disease risks. Science(Washington) 330: 460-461. doi: 10.1126/science.1192603
![]() |
[143] |
Smith MT, Zhang L, McHale CM, et al. (2011) Benzene, the exposome and future investigations of leukemia etiology. Che Biol Interact 192: 155-159. doi: 10.1016/j.cbi.2011.02.010
![]() |
[144] |
Maitre L, Fthenou E, Athersuch T, et al. (2014) Urinary metabolic profiles in early pregnancy are associated with preterm birth and fetal growth restriction in the Rhea mother-child cohort study. BMC Medicine 12: 110. doi: 10.1186/1741-7015-12-110
![]() |
[145] |
Senn T, Hazen SL, Tang W (2012) Translating metabolomics to cardiovascular biomarkers. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 55: 70-76. doi: 10.1016/j.pcad.2012.06.004
![]() |
[146] |
Yang Y, Cruickshank C, Armstrong M, et al. (2013) New sample preparation approach for mass spectrometry-based profiling of plasma results in improved coverage of metabolome. J Chromatogr A 1300: 217-226. doi: 10.1016/j.chroma.2013.04.030
![]() |
[147] |
Kind T, Fiehn O (2010) Advances in structure elucidation of small molecules using mass spectrometry. Bioanalyt Rev 2: 23-60. doi: 10.1007/s12566-010-0015-9
![]() |
[148] |
Mattarucchi E, Baraldi E, Guillou C (2012) Metabolomics applied to urine samples in childhood asthma; differentiation between asthma phenotypes and identification of relevant metabolites. Biomed Chromatogr 26: 89-94. doi: 10.1002/bmc.1631
![]() |
[149] |
Ho WE, Xu Y-J, Xu F, et al. (2013) Metabolomics reveals altered metabolic pathways in experimental asthma. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 48: 204-211. doi: 10.1165/rcmb.2012-0246OC
![]() |
[150] |
Fanos V, Barberini L, Antonucci R, et al. (2011) Metabolomics in neonatology and pediatrics. Clin Biochem 44: 452-454. doi: 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2011.03.006
![]() |
[151] |
Griffiths WJ, Koal T, Wang Y, et al. (2010) Targeted metabolomics for biomarker discovery. Angew Chem Int Edit 49: 5426-5445. doi: 10.1002/anie.200905579
![]() |
[152] |
Carraro S, Rezzi S, Reniero F, et al. (2007) Metabolomics applied to exhaled breath condensate in childhood asthma. Am J Resp Crit Care 175: 986-990. doi: 10.1164/rccm.200606-769OC
![]() |
[153] |
Tan YM, Conolly R, Chang DT, et al. (2012) Computational toxicology: application in environmental chemicals. Methods Mol Biol 929: 9-19. doi: 10.1007/978-1-62703-050-2_2
![]() |
[154] | Caldwell JC, Evans MV, Krishnan K (2012) Cutting Edge PBPK Models and Analyses: Providing the Basis for Future Modeling Efforts and Bridges to Emerging Toxicology Paradigms. J Toxicol 2012: 852384. |
[155] |
Barrett JS, Della Casa Alberighi O, Laer S, et al. (2012) Physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling in children. Clin Pharmacol Ther 92: 40-49. doi: 10.1038/clpt.2012.64
![]() |
[156] |
Bjorkman S (2005) Prediction of drug disposition in infants and children by means of physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modelling: theophylline and midazolam as model drugs. Br J Clin Pharmacol 59: 691-704. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2125.2004.02225.x
![]() |
[157] |
Vinks AA (2013) The future of physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling to predict drug exposure in pregnant women. CPT Pharmacometrics Syst Pharmacol 2: e33. doi: 10.1038/psp.2013.9
![]() |
[158] |
Ruiz P, Ray M, Fisher J, et al. (2011) Development of a human Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK) Toolkit for environmental pollutants. Int J Mol Sci 12: 7469-7480. doi: 10.3390/ijms12117469
![]() |
[159] |
Hartung T, van Vliet E, Jaworska J, et al. (2012) Systems toxicology. ALTEX 29: 119-128. doi: 10.14573/altex.2012.2.119
![]() |
[160] |
Kitano H (2002) Computational systems biology. Nature 420: 206-210. doi: 10.1038/nature01254
![]() |
[161] |
Mc Auley MT, Wilkinson DJ, Jones JJ, et al. (2012) A whole-body mathematical model of cholesterol metabolism and its age-associated dysregulation. BMC Syst Biol 6: 130. doi: 10.1186/1752-0509-6-130
![]() |
[162] | Mc Auley MT, Proctor CJ, Corfe BM, et al. (2013) Nutrition Research and the Impact of Computational Systems Biology. l Comput Sci Syst Biol 6: 271-285. |
[163] |
Wittig U, Rey M, Kania R, et al. (2014) Challenges for an enzymatic reaction kinetics database. FEBS J 281: 572-582. doi: 10.1111/febs.12562
![]() |
[164] | Gutenkunst RN, Waterfall JJ, Casey FP, et al. (2007) Universally sloppy parameter sensitivities in systems biology models. PLoS Comput Biol 3: 1871-1878. |
[165] | Carbo A, Olivares-Villagomez D, Hontecillas R, et al. (2014) Systems modeling of the role of interleukin-21 in the maintenance of effector CD4+ T cell responses during chronic Helicobacter pylori infection. MBio 5: e01243-01214. |
[166] |
Reibman J, Marmor M, Filner J, et al. (2008) Asthma is inversely associated with Helicobacter pylori status in an urban population. PLoS One 3: e4060. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0004060
![]() |
[167] |
Pacifico L, Osborn JF, Tromba V, et al. (2014) Helicobacter pylori infection and extragastric disorders in children: a critical update. World J Gastroenterol 20: 1379-1401. doi: 10.3748/wjg.v20.i6.1379
![]() |
[168] |
Wilkinson DJ (2009) Stochastic modelling for quantitative description of heterogeneous biological systems. Nat Rev Genet 10: 122-133. doi: 10.1038/nrg2509
![]() |
[169] |
Jaworska J, Gabbert S, Aldenberg T (2010) Towards optimization of chemical testing under REACH: a Bayesian network approach to Integrated Testing Strategies. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 57: 157-167. doi: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2010.02.003
![]() |
[170] |
Chaouiya C (2007) Petri net modelling of biological networks. Brief Bioinform 8: 210-219. doi: 10.1093/bib/bbm029
![]() |
[171] | Hucka M, Finney A, Bornstein BJ, et al. (2004) Evolving a lingua franca and associated software infrastructure for computational systems biology: the Systems Biology Markup Language (SBML) project. Syst Biol (Stevenage) 1: 41-53. |
[172] |
Ankley GT, Bennett RS, Erickson RJ, et al. (2010) Adverse outcome pathways: a conceptual framework to support ecotoxicology research and risk assessment. Environ Toxicol Chem 29: 730-741. doi: 10.1002/etc.34
![]() |
[173] |
Kimber I, Dearman RJ, Basketter DA, et al. (2014) Chemical respiratory allergy: reverse engineering an adverse outcome pathway. Toxicology 318: 32-39. doi: 10.1016/j.tox.2014.02.001
![]() |
[174] |
Vinken M (2013) The adverse outcome pathway concept: a pragmatic tool in toxicology. Toxicology 312: 158-165. doi: 10.1016/j.tox.2013.08.011
![]() |
[175] | National Research Council (2012) Exposure Science in the 21st Century: A Vision and a Strategy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. 196 p. |
[176] |
Brunekreef B (2013) Exposure science, the exposome, and public health. Environ Mol Mutagen 54: 596-598. doi: 10.1002/em.21767
![]() |
[177] |
Bornehag CG, Blomquist G, Gyntelberg F, et al. (2001) Dampness in Buildings and Health. Indoor Air 11: 72-86. doi: 10.1034/j.1600-0668.2001.110202.x
![]() |
[178] | Bornehag CG, Sundell J, Bonini S, et al. (2004) Dampness in buildings as a risk factor for health effects, (EUROEXPO). A multidisciplinary review of the literature (1998-2000) on dampness and mite exposure in buildings and health effects. Indoor Air 14: 243-257. |
[179] | Bornehag CG, Sundell J, Hägerhed-Engman L, et al. (2005) Association between ventilation rates in 390 Swedish homes and allergic symptoms in children. 15: 275-280. |
1. | Rowan Sprague, William Godsoe, Philip E. Hulme, Assessing the utility of aerial imagery to quantify the density, age structure and spatial pattern of alien conifer invasions, 2019, 21, 1387-3547, 2095, 10.1007/s10530-019-01960-8 | |
2. | Abby G. Frazier, Laura Brewington, 2020, 9780128160978, 607, 10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.11881-0 | |
3. | Clayson J. Howell, Naturalised status of exotic conifers in New Zealand, 2019, 57, 0028-825X, 227, 10.1080/0028825X.2019.1626744 | |
4. | Fidele Bognounou, Philip E. Hulme, Lauri Oksanen, Otso Suominen, Johan Olofsson, Otto Wildi, Role of climate and herbivory on native and alien conifer seedling recruitment at and above the Fennoscandian tree line, 2018, 29, 11009233, 573, 10.1111/jvs.12637 | |
5. | Matt S. McGlone, Sarah J. Richardson, Olivia R. Burge, George L. W. Perry, Janet M. Wilmshurst, Palynology and the Ecology of the New Zealand Conifers, 2017, 5, 2296-6463, 10.3389/feart.2017.00094 | |
6. | Caroline A. Curtis, Valerie J. Pasquarella, Bethany A. Bradley, Landscape characteristics of non-native pine plantations and invasions in Southern Chile, 2019, 44, 14429985, 1213, 10.1111/aec.12799 | |
7. | Takuo Nagaike, A Review of the Current Status and Perspectives of Exotic Conifer Plantations, 2021, 103, 1349-8509, 297, 10.4005/jjfs.103.297 | |
8. | Jingwen Yang, David J. Cooper, Xu Zhang, Wenqi Song, Zongshan Li, Yuandong Zhang, Huiying Zhao, Shijie Han, Xiaochun Wang, Climatic controls of Pinus pumila radial growth along an altitude gradient, 2022, 53, 0169-4286, 319, 10.1007/s11056-021-09858-x | |
9. | Rowan Sprague, Philip E. Hulme, Elena Moltchanova, William Godsoe, Density dependence and spatial heterogeneity limit the population growth rate of invasive pines at the landscape scale, 2021, 44, 0906-7590, 1463, 10.1111/ecog.05959 | |
10. | Thomas R. Buckley, Robert J. B. Hoare, Richard A. B. Leschen, Key questions on the evolution and biogeography of New Zealand alpine insects, 2022, 0303-6758, 1, 10.1080/03036758.2022.2130367 | |
11. | Eduardo Fuentes-Lillo, Jonas J. Lembrechts, Agustina Barros, Valeria Aschero, Ramiro O. Bustamante, Lohengrin A. Cavieres, Jan Clavel, Ileana Herrera, Alejandra Jiménez, Paula Tecco, Philip E. Hulme, Martín A. Núñez, Ricardo Rozzi, Rafael A. García, Daniel Simberloff, Ivan Nijs, Aníbal Pauchard, Going up the Andes: patterns and drivers of non-native plant invasions across latitudinal and elevational gradients, 2023, 32, 0960-3115, 4199, 10.1007/s10531-023-02697-6 |
Microsite | Adults | Subadults | Saplings | Seedlings |
Mat | 6 | 10 | 27 | 19 |
Rock | 3 | 4 | 6 | 5 |
Scree | 1 | 3 | 3 | 3 |
Shrub | 2 | 4 | 7 | 2 |
Soil | 25 | 27 | 25 | 54 |
Tussock | 1 | 0 | 5 | 0 |
Chi-square | χ2 = 68.73 | χ2 = 60.75 | χ2 = 48.06 | χ2 = 156.63 |
df = 5 | df = 5 | df = 5 | df = 5 | |
p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 | p < 0.001 |