The proliferation of thermosetting plastics—materials engineered to maintain stable thermal properties across defined temperature ranges—has enabled critical applications in electronics, automotive components, and household appliances. However, their inherent cross-linked or highly stable polymer structures, designed for thermal durability, simultaneously render them difficult to recycle through conventional melt-processing methods. This has led to a growing accumulation of thermosetting plastics and their composite wastes, which often incorporate reinforcing fibers (glass, carbon) or metallic inserts, further complicating waste management. This review examines the current landscape of thermosetting plastic waste streams, focusing on the challenges posed by their high-performance matrices. We critically assess emerging recycling strategies, including thermal, mechanical, and chemical recycling methods, with particular attention to methods that enable the recovery of both the polymer fraction and embedded reinforcements. Furthermore, the potential for emerging vitrimerization technology is explored and extensively reviewed. Key findings indicate that while landfilling and incineration remain prevalent, advanced separation and low-degradation chemical recycling routes presently offer better pathways toward circularity, particularly so because vitrimerization is at its infant stage. The review concludes by presenting a SWOT analysis of the various valorization methods, identifying vitrimerization technology as the future process capable of addressing the gaps in thermosetting plastics and their composite waste management.
Citation: Wilson Uzochukwu Eze. Recycling technologies for thermosetting plastics and their composites: Advances through vitrimerization[J]. Clean Technologies and Recycling, 2026, 6(2): 208-233. doi: 10.3934/ctr.2026009
The proliferation of thermosetting plastics—materials engineered to maintain stable thermal properties across defined temperature ranges—has enabled critical applications in electronics, automotive components, and household appliances. However, their inherent cross-linked or highly stable polymer structures, designed for thermal durability, simultaneously render them difficult to recycle through conventional melt-processing methods. This has led to a growing accumulation of thermosetting plastics and their composite wastes, which often incorporate reinforcing fibers (glass, carbon) or metallic inserts, further complicating waste management. This review examines the current landscape of thermosetting plastic waste streams, focusing on the challenges posed by their high-performance matrices. We critically assess emerging recycling strategies, including thermal, mechanical, and chemical recycling methods, with particular attention to methods that enable the recovery of both the polymer fraction and embedded reinforcements. Furthermore, the potential for emerging vitrimerization technology is explored and extensively reviewed. Key findings indicate that while landfilling and incineration remain prevalent, advanced separation and low-degradation chemical recycling routes presently offer better pathways toward circularity, particularly so because vitrimerization is at its infant stage. The review concludes by presenting a SWOT analysis of the various valorization methods, identifying vitrimerization technology as the future process capable of addressing the gaps in thermosetting plastics and their composite waste management.
| [1] | Azevedo HS, Santos TC, Reis RL (2008) Controlling the degradation of natural polymers for biomedical applications, In: Rui L. Reis, Nuno M. Neves, João F. Mano, et al., Woodhead Publishing Series in Biomaterials, Natural-Based Polymers for Biomedical Applications, Woodhead Publishing, 106–128. https://doi.org/10.1533/9781845694814.1.106 |
| [2] |
Walker S, Rothman R (2020) Life cycle assessment of bio-based and fusil-based plastics: A review. J Clean Prod 261: 121158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121158 doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121158
|
| [3] |
Maitra J, Bhardwaj N (2025) Development of bio-based polymeric blends—A comprehensive review. J Biomater Sci Polym Ed 36:102–136. https://doi.org/10.1080/09205063.2024.2394300 doi: 10.1080/09205063.2024.2394300
|
| [4] |
Zimmermann L, Dombroski A, Volker C, et al. (2020) Are boiplastics and plant-based materials safer than conventional plastics? In vitro toxicity and chemical composition. Environ Int 145: 106066. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.106066 doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.106066
|
| [5] |
Hassan FS, Eze WU, Umunakwe R, et al. (2025) Physico-mechanical characterization of recycled LDPE blended with EPS as a Sustainable rigid alternative to polypropylene. Cleaner Waste Syst 12: 100383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clwas.2025.100383 doi: 10.1016/j.clwas.2025.100383
|
| [6] |
Zhan K, Elder T, Peng Y (2024) Enhancing polypropylene/polyethylene blend performance through compatibilization for a sustainable future: A mini review focusing on establishing a bio-derived filler based hybrid compatibilizer system. Macromol Rapid Commun 46: 2400724. https://doi.org/10.1002/marc.202400724 doi: 10.1002/marc.202400724
|
| [7] | Luca D, Michele L (2022) Polymers and plastics: Types, properties, and manufacturing, In: Filippo Giustozzi, Sabzoi Nizamuddin, Woodhead Publishing Series in Civil and Structural Engineering, Plastic Waste for Sustainable Asphalt Roads, Woodhead Publishing, 3–28, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85789-5.00001-0 |
| [8] |
Hyeon-Hye K, Byung-Joo K (2024) Thermal degradation behavior and decomposition mechanism of thermoset plastic for carbon fiber-reinforced plastic recycling under varied process conditions. Chem Eng J 493: 152407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.152407 doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2024.152407
|
| [9] |
Marta C, Lorena G, Aitziber I, et al. (2025) Circular Approaches for thermoset composites. J Compos Sci 9: 682. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9120682 doi: 10.3390/jcs9120682
|
| [10] |
Hay JN, O'Gara P (2006) Recent developments in thermoset curing methods. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part G J Aerosp Eng 220: 187–195. https://doi.org/10.1243/09544100JAERO35 doi: 10.1243/09544100JAERO35
|
| [11] |
Boquillon N, Fringant C (2000) Polymer networks derived from curing of epoxidised linseed oil: Influence of different catalysts and anhydride hardeners. Polymer 41: 8603–8613. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0032-3861(00)00256-1 doi: 10.1016/S0032-3861(00)00256-1
|
| [12] |
Gaiya JD, Eze WU, Oyegoke T, et al. (2021) Assessment of the dielectric properties of polyester/metakaolin composite. Eur J Mater Sci Eng 6: 19–29. https://doi.org/10.36868/ejmse.2021.06.01.019 doi: 10.36868/ejmse.2021.06.01.019
|
| [13] |
Walczyk D, Kuppers J (2012) Thermal press curing of advanced thermoset composite laminate parts. Compos. Part A Appl Sci Manuf 43: 635–646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2011.12.008 doi: 10.1016/j.compositesa.2011.12.008
|
| [14] |
Fan-Long J, Park SJ (2015) Preparation and characterization of carbon fiber-reinforced thermosetting composites: A review. Carbon Lett 16: 67–77. https://doi.org/10.5714/CL.2015.16.2.067 doi: 10.5714/CL.2015.16.2.067
|
| [15] |
Caydamli Y, Heudorfer K, Take J, et al (2021) Transparent fiber-reinforced composites based on a thermoset resin using liquid composite molding (LCM) techniques. Materials 14: 6087. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14206087 doi: 10.3390/ma14206087
|
| [16] |
Gore PM, Kandasubramanian B (2018) Functionalized aramid fibers and composites for protective applications: A review. Ind Eng Chem Res 57: 16537–16563. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.8b04903 doi: 10.1021/acs.iecr.8b04903
|
| [17] |
Mishnaevsky L, Branner K, Petersen HN, et al. (2017) Materials for wind turbine blades: An overview. Materials 10: 1285. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma10111285 doi: 10.3390/ma10111285
|
| [18] |
Vieira DR, Vieira RK, Chain MC (2017) Strategy and management for the recycling of carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRPs) in the aircraft industry: A critical review. Int J Sustain Dev World Ecol 24: 214–223. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504509.2016.1204371 doi: 10.1080/13504509.2016.1204371
|
| [19] | Bluequark research and consulting, Global thermoset market outlook to 2031, 2026 edition. Available from: https://www.bluequarkresearch.com |
| [20] |
Dai J, Peng Y, Teng N (2018) High-performing and fire- resistant biobased epoxy resin from renewable sources. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 6: 7589–7599. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b00439 doi: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b00439
|
| [21] | Eze WU, Yakubu MK, Buba MA (2022) Effect of Nano-structured Bambara Nut Shell (Vigna Subterranea L. Verdc) as filler on the physical, mechanical and morphological properties of Epoxy Matrix. J Mater Environ Sci 13:1155–1170. |
| [22] | Naheed S, Jawaid M (2017) Epoxy resin based hybrid polymer composites. In: Thakur VK, Thakur MK, Pappu A, Hybrid Polymer Composite Materials, Woodhead Publishing: Kidlington, UK, 57–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100787-7.00003-2 |
| [23] | Polyurethane Global Market Volume (2030) Available from: https://www.statistica.com/statistics/720341/global-polyurathane-market-size-forecast/ (accessed on 3 May 2024). |
| [24] | Naqvi SZ, Ramkumar J, Kar KK (2021) Fly ash/glass fibre/carbon fibre-reinforced thermoset composites. In: handbook of fly ash, Elsevier: Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 373–400. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817686-3.00023-2 |
| [25] |
Arunachalam M, Harry WG (2014) Recent developments in polypseudorotaxanes and polyrotaxanes. Progress Polymer Sci 39: 1043–1073. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2013.11.005 doi: 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2013.11.005
|
| [26] |
Emel Y, Iskender Y (2014) Silicone containing copolymers: Synthesis, properties and applications. Progress Polymer Sci 39: 1165–1195, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2013.11.003 doi: 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2013.11.003
|
| [27] |
Dankert F, Von-Hanisch C (2021) Siloxane coordination revised Si-O bond character, reactivity and significant molecular shapes. Eur J Inorg Chem 29: 2907–2927. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejic.202100275 doi: 10.1002/ejic.202100275
|
| [28] | Mondor Intelligence, Silicone Market Size and Share Analysis—Growth Trends and Forecasts (2024–2029). Available from: https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/silicone-market (accessed on 3 May 2026). |
| [29] |
Weinhold F, West R (2011) The nature of the silico-oxygen bond. Organometallics 30: 5815–5824. https://doi.org/10.1021/om200675d doi: 10.1021/om200675d
|
| [30] | World Thermoset Polyester Composite—Market Analysis, Forecast, Size, Trends and Insights (2026). Available from: https://www.marketgrowthreports.com/market-reports/polyester-fiber-market-115989 (accessed on 3 May 2026). |
| [31] |
Xu Y, Guo L, Zhang H, Zhai H (2019) Research status, industrial application demand and respects of phenolic resin. RSC Adv 9: 28924–28935. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9RA06487G doi: 10.1039/C9RA06487G
|
| [32] |
Chaussoy N, Brandt D, Gerard JF (2023) formaldehyde-free and phenol-freenon toxic phenolic resins with high thermalstability. ACS Appl Polym Mater 5: 5630–3640. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsapm.3c00935 doi: 10.1021/acsapm.3c00935
|
| [33] |
Li TT, Liu ZR, Bai YH (2008) Human cancer risk from the inhalation of formaldehyde in different indoor environments in Guiyang City, China. Bull Environ Cotam Toxicol 81: 200–204. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-008-9409-6 doi: 10.1007/s00128-008-9409-6
|
| [34] |
Songur A, Ozen OA, Sarsilmaz M (2009) The toxic effects of formaldehyde on the Nervous System. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 203: 105–118. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1352-4_3 doi: 10.1007/978-1-4419-1352-4_3
|
| [35] |
Hisako AO (2021) Application of phenolic compounds in plants for green chemical materials. Current Opin Green Sustain Chem 27: 100418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsc.2020.100418 doi: 10.1016/j.cogsc.2020.100418
|
| [36] |
Zhu B, Jang X, Li S, et al. (2024) An overview of recycling phenolic resin. Polymers 16, 1255. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16091255 doi: 10.3390/polym16091255
|
| [37] | Technavio, phenolic resin market analysis, size and forecast 2025–2029. Available from: https://www.technavic.com/report/phenolic-resin-market-industry-analysis (accessed 5th May 2026). |
| [38] | GlobalInformation, thermosetting Plastics Market Size, Share and Growth Analysis, Forecast 2026–2030. Available from: https://www.giresearch.com/report/sky/1898684-thermosetting-plastics-market-size-share-growth.html (accessed 5th May 2026). |
| [39] |
Eze WU, Umunakwe R, Obasi HC, et al. (2021) Plastics waste management: A review of pyrolysis technology. Clean Technol Recycl 1: 50–69. https://doi.org/10.3934/ctr.2021003 doi: 10.3934/ctr.2021003
|
| [40] |
Joustra J, Fipsen B, Balkenede R (2021) Structural reuse of high end composite products: A design case study on wind turbine blades. Resour Conserv Recycl 167: 1055393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105393 doi: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105393
|
| [41] |
Beauson J, Laurent A, Rudolph DP, et al. (2022) The complex end-of-life of wind turbine blades: A review of the European context. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 155: 11847. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111847 doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2021.111847
|
| [42] | Schmid M, Gonzalez N, Dierckx A, et al. (2020) Accelerating wind turbine blade circularity. WindEurope, EuCIA, Cefic: Bussels, Belgium. |
| [43] |
Pickering SJ (2006) Recycling technologies for thermoset composite materials—current status, Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf 8: 1206–1215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2005.05.030 doi: 10.1016/j.compositesa.2005.05.030
|
| [44] |
Shubham U, Suriya VK, Neha M, et al. (2021) Comprehensive study of recycling of thermosetting polymer composites—Driving force, challenges and methods. Compos Part B Eng 207: 108596. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2020.108596 doi: 10.1016/j.compositesb.2020.108596
|
| [45] |
Dorigato A (2021) Recycling of thermosetting composites for wind blade application. Adv Ind Eng Polym Res 4: 116–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aiepr.2021.02.002 doi: 10.1016/j.aiepr.2021.02.002
|
| [46] |
Conroy A, Halliwell S, Reynolds T (2006) Composites recycling in construction industry. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf 37: 1216–1222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2005.05.031 doi: 10.1016/j.compositesa.2005.05.031
|
| [47] |
Nessa FS, Neil R, Catherine A, et al (2018) Introducing cryomilling for reliable determination of resin content and degree of cure in structural carbon fibre reinforced thermoset composites. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf 107: 197–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2018.01.004 doi: 10.1016/j.compositesa.2018.01.004
|
| [48] |
Erin MM, Michaela AP, Greg H, et al. (2024) Mechanical recycling of 3D printed thermosets for reuse in vat photopolymerization. ACS Appl Polm Mater 6, 4625–4533. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsapm.4c00184 doi: 10.1021/acsapm.4c00184
|
| [49] |
George TS, Adrian B, Mirela-Fernanda Z, et al. (2026) A new life for silicone waste: Cryo-milling and reuse as soft/elastic filler in silicone formulations for pressure sensors. J Environ Manag 397: 128255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.128255 doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.128255
|
| [50] |
Liang Y, Haochen G, Alison K, et al. (2020) Converting thermoset polymers into vitrimers. ACS Macro Lett 9,836–842. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsmacrolett.0c00299 doi: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.0c00299
|
| [51] |
Omar A (2026) Revisiting properties of vitrimers: Special rheological and chemical characteristics and reconsidered concepts. Polym Eng Scienc 66: 1611–1630. https://doi.org/10.1002/pen.70358 doi: 10.1002/pen.70358
|
| [52] | Andreas K, Jan-Kristian (2026) Vitrimers: New types of reshapable, repairable and recyclable polymer matrice- A physical technical perspective, In: Vif B, Bernd W, Martin G, Plastic Design Library, Multifunctionality of Polymer Composites (Second Edition), William Andrew Publishing, 1041–1076. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-28872-2.00015-2 |
| [53] |
Eze UW, Madufor IC, Onyeagoro GN, et al. (2020) The effect of kankara zeolite-Y-based catalyst on some physical properties of liquid fuel from mixed waste plastics (MWPs) pyrolysis. Polym Bull 77: 1399–1415. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-019-02806-y doi: 10.1007/s00289-019-02806-y
|
| [54] |
Eze UW, Madufor IC, Onyeagoro GN, et al. (2021) Study on the effect of kankara zeolite-Y-based catalyst on the chemical properties of liquid fuel from mixed waste plastics (MWPs) pyrolysis. Polym Bull 78: 377–398. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-020-03116-4 doi: 10.1007/s00289-020-03116-4
|
| [55] |
Butenegro JA, Baharni M, Abenejor J, et al. (2021) Recent Progress in carbon fibre reinforced polymers recycling: A review of recycling methods and reuse of carbon fibres. Materials 14: 6401. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216401 doi: 10.3390/ma14216401
|
| [56] |
De-Fazio D, Baccarusso L, Formisano A, et al. (2023) A review on the recycling technologies of fibre- reinforced plastic (FRP) materials used in industrial fields. J Man Sci Eng 11: 851. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11040851 doi: 10.3390/jmse11040851
|
| [57] |
Ginder RS, Ozcan S (2019) Recycling of commercial E-glass reinforced thermoset composites via two temperature step pyrolysis to improve recovered fibre tensile strenght and failure strain. Recycle 4: 24. https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling4020024 doi: 10.3390/recycling4020024
|
| [58] |
Wu T, Zhang W, Jin X, et al. (2019) Efficient reclamation of carbon fibres from epoxy composite wastes through catalytic pyrolysis in molten ZnCl2. RSC Adv 9: 377–388. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8RA08958B doi: 10.1039/C8RA08958B
|
| [59] |
Uzoejinwa BB, He X, Wang S, et al. (2018) Copyrolysis of biomass and waste plastics as a thermochemical conversion technology for high-grade biofuel production: Recent progress and future directions elsewhere wordwide. Energy Convers Manag 163: 468–492. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2018.02.004 doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2018.02.004
|
| [60] |
Khder IM, Abdulkareem H, Hassan Z. F, et al. (2025) Advances in catalytic pyrolysis of mixed plastic waste with algal biomass: A review on sustainable biofuel production and carbon capture. Clean Waste Syst 12: 100434. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clwas.2025.100434 doi: 10.1016/j.clwas.2025.100434
|
| [61] |
Seah CC, Tan CH, Arfin NA, et al. (2023) Copyrolysis of biomass and plastic: Circularity of waste and comprehensive review of synegitic mechanism. Results Eng 17: 101989. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2023.100989 doi: 10.1016/j.rineng.2023.100989
|
| [62] |
Gopalraj SK, Karki T (2020) A Review on the recycling of waste carbon fibre/glass fibre-reinforced composites: Fibre recovery, properties and life-cycle analysis. SN Appl Sci 2: 433. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-2195-4 doi: 10.1007/s42452-020-2195-4
|
| [63] |
Oliveux G, Dandy LO, Leeke GA (2015) Current status of recycling of fibre reinforced polymers: Review of technologies, reuse and resulting properties. Prog Maer Sci 72: 61–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2015.01.004 doi: 10.1016/j.pmatsci.2015.01.004
|
| [64] |
Yang L, Saez ER, Nagel U, et al. (2015) Can thermally degraded glass fibre be regenerated for closed-loop recycling of thermosetting composites? Compos A Appl Sci Manuf 72: 167–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2015.01.030 doi: 10.1016/j.compositesa.2015.01.030
|
| [65] |
Thomason JL, Nagel U, Yang L, et al. (2016) Regenerating the strength of thermally recycled glass fibres using hot sodium hydroxide. Compos A Appl Sci Manuf 87: 220–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2016.05.003 doi: 10.1016/j.compositesa.2016.05.003
|
| [66] |
Pender K, Yang L (2017) Investigation of the potential for catalysed thermal recycling in glass fibres reinforced polymer composites by using metal oxides. Compos A Appl Sci Manuf 100: 285–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2017.05.016 doi: 10.1016/j.compositesa.2017.05.016
|
| [67] |
Eugeniusz M, Alicja U (2002) Alternative fuels for the cement industry. Appl Energy 74: 95–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306-2619(02)00135-6 doi: 10.1016/S0306-2619(02)00135-6
|
| [68] |
Prakash A, Palkar PR (2023) Co-processing of plastic waste in cement kiln: A better option. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 30: 24804–24814. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-17725-7 doi: 10.1007/s11356-021-17725-7
|
| [69] |
Liu Y, Yu Z, Wang B, et al. (2022) Close-up chemical recycling of thermosetting polymers and their application: A review. Green Chem 24: 5691–5708. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2GC00368F doi: 10.1039/D2GC00368F
|
| [70] |
Okajima I, Hiramatsu M, Shimamura Y, et al. (2014) Chemical recycling of carbon fibre reinforced plastic using supercritical methanol. J Supercrit Fluids 91: 68–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2014.04.011 doi: 10.1016/j.supflu.2014.04.011
|
| [71] |
Utekar S, More VK, Rao N (2021) Comprehensive study of recycling of thermosetting polymer composites—Driving force, challenges and methods. Compos Part B 207: 108596. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2020.108596 doi: 10.1016/j.compositesb.2020.108596
|
| [72] | Pantazidou M, Modestou M, Semitokolos D, et al. (2024) Solvolysis of thermoset polymer composites. In: 14th Panhellenic Scientific Conference on Chemical Engineering, 29–31. |
| [73] | Omar Y, Mostafa S, Mamdouh A, et al. (2025) Sustainable recycling of thermoset polymers: A DOE-based approach to optimize solvolysis of glass fibre reinforced epoxy composites. In: The 13th National Conference on Environmental Chemistry. J. Phys. Confer Ser 3051: 012006. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/3051/1/012006 |
| [74] |
Piñero-Hernanz R, Dodds C, Hyde J, et al. (2008) Chemical recycling of carbon fibre reinforced composites in nearcritical and supercritical water. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf 39: 454–461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2008.01.001 doi: 10.1016/j.compositesa.2008.01.001
|
| [75] |
Bai Y, Wang Z, Feng L (2010) Chemical recycling of carbon fibers reinforced epoxy resin composites in oxygen in supercritical water. Mater Des 31: 999–1002. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2009.07.057 doi: 10.1016/j.matdes.2009.07.057
|
| [76] |
Okajima I, Sako T (2017) Recycling of carbon fiber-reinforced plastic using supercritical and subcritical fluids. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 19: 15–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-015-0412-9 doi: 10.1007/s10163-015-0412-9
|
| [77] |
Piñero-Hernanz R, García-Serna J, Dodds C, et al. (2008) Chemical recycling of carbon fibre composites using alcohols under subcritical and supercritical conditions. J Supercrit Fluids 46: 83–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2008.02.008 doi: 10.1016/j.supflu.2008.02.008
|
| [78] |
Cheng H, Huang H, Liu Z, et al. (2018) Reaction kinetics of CFRP degradation in supercritical fluids. J Polym Environ 2: 2153–2165. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-017-1114-2 doi: 10.1007/s10924-017-1114-2
|
| [79] |
Okajima I, Sako T (2019) Recycling fiber-reinforced plastic using supercritical acetone. Polym Degrad Stab 163: 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2019.02.018 doi: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2019.02.018
|
| [80] |
Raúl P, Juan G, Christopher D, et al. (2008) Chemical recycling of carbon fibre composites using alcohols under subcritical and supercritical conditions. J Supercrit Fluid 46: 83–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2008.02.008 doi: 10.1016/j.supflu.2008.02.008
|
| [81] |
Raúl P, Juan G, Christopher D, et al. (2008) Chemical recycling of carbon fibre composites in nearcritical and supercritical water. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf 39: 454–461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2008.01.001 doi: 10.1016/j.compositesa.2008.01.001
|
| [82] |
Jia X, Peng P, Cui J, et al. (2018) Four N, O-Bidentate-chelated ligand-tunable copper(Ⅱ) Complexes: Synthesis, structural characterization and exceptional catalytic properties for chan–lam coupling reactions. Asian J Org Chem 7: 1093–1100. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajoc.201800153 doi: 10.1002/ajoc.201800153
|
| [83] |
Silva AC, Fernández TL, Carvalho NMF, et al. (2007) Oxidation of cyclohexane catalyzed by Bis-(2-Pyridylmethyl) Amine Cu(Ⅱ) Complexes. Appl Catal A Gen 317: 154–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcata.2006.10.012 doi: 10.1016/j.apcata.2006.10.012
|
| [84] |
Titi A, Warad I, Tillard M, et al. (2020) Inermolecular interaction in [C6H10N3]2[CoCl4] Complex: Synthesis, XRD/HSA relation, spectral and catecholase catalytic analysis. J Mol Struct 1217: 128422. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2020.128422 doi: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2020.128422
|
| [85] |
Mareike T, Ben R, Max E, et al. (2025) Identifying key properties of thermoplastics affected by mechanical recycling processes to support material selection for circularity. Procedia CIRP 134: 205–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2025.03.055 doi: 10.1016/j.procir.2025.03.055
|
| [86] |
Shaoqin C, Yun HH (2024) Advancements and future directions in waste plastics recycling: From mechanical methods to innovative chemical processes. Chem Eng J 493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.152727 doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2024.152727
|
| [87] |
Capelot M, Unterlass MM, Tournihac F, et al. (2012) Catalytic Control of the vitrimer glass transition. ACS Macro Lett 1: 789–792. https://doi.org/10.1021/mz300239f doi: 10.1021/mz300239f
|
| [88] |
Capelot M, Montarnal D, Tournihac F, et al. (2012) Metal-catalyzed tranesterification for healing and assembling of thermosets. J Am Chem Soc 134: 7664–7667. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja302894k doi: 10.1021/ja302894k
|
| [89] |
Hendriks J, Waelkens JM, Winne FE, et al. (2017) Poly (thioether) vitrimers via trasnalkylation of trialkylsulfonium salts. ACS Macro Lett 6: 930–934. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsmacrolett.7b00494 doi: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.7b00494
|
| [90] |
Zhao XL, Liu YY, Weng Y, et al. (2020) Sustainable epoxy vitrimer from epoxidized soyabean oil and vanillin. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 8: 15020–15029. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c05727 doi: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c05727
|
| [91] |
Scheutz GM, Lessard JJ, Sims MB, et al. (2019) Adaptable crosslinks in polymeric materials. Resolving the intersection of thermoplastics and thermosets. J Am Chem Soc 141: 16181–16196. https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.9b07922 doi: 10.1021/jacs.9b07922
|
| [92] | Dodiuk H (2021) Handbook of Thermoset Plastics. Williams Andrew: Norwich, NY, USA. |
| [93] |
Karantrantos AV, Couture O, Hesse C, et al. (2024) Molecular Simulation of covalent adaptable networks and vitrimers: A review. Polymers 16: 1373. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16101373 doi: 10.3390/polym16101373
|
| [94] |
Kloxin CJ, Scott TF, Adzina BJ, et al. (2010) Covalent adaptable networks (CANs). A unique paradigm in cross-linked polymers. Macromolecules 43: 2643–2653. https://doi.org/10.1021/ma902596s doi: 10.1021/ma902596s
|
| [95] |
Tingzi Y, Xianlu L, Huihui X, et al. (2022) Vitrimer-like transparent blend films based on reactive blending of PC and PMMA with catalysis of Mg(TFSI)2. Compos Commun 36: 101394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coco.2022.101394 doi: 10.1016/j.coco.2022.101394
|
| [96] |
Zheng X, Yang H, Sun Y, et al. (2021) Molecular dynamics simulation on self-healing behavior based on disulfide bond exchange reactions. Polymer 212: 123111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2020.123111 doi: 10.1016/j.polymer.2020.123111
|
| [97] |
Sigh G, Sundaraghan V (2020) Modelling self-healing behavior of vitrimers using molecular dynamics with dynamic cross-linking capability. Chem Phys Lett 760: 137966. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cplett.2020.137966 doi: 10.1016/j.cplett.2020.137966
|
| [98] |
Zheng N, Xu Y, Zhao Q, et al. (2021) Dynamic covalent polymer networks: A molecular platform for designing functions beyond chemical recycling and self-healing. Chem Rev 121: 1716–1745. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00938 doi: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00938
|
| [99] |
Liang Y, Haochen G, Alison K, et al. (2020) Vitrimerization: Converting thermoset polymers into vitrimers. ACS Macro Lett 9: 836–842. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsmacrolett.0c00299 doi: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.0c00299
|
| [100] |
Yue L, Bonab VS, Yuan D, et al. (2019) Vitrimerization: A novel concept to reprocess and recycle thermoset waste via dynamic chemistry. Glob Chall 3: 1800076. https://doi.org/10.1002/gch2.201800076 doi: 10.1002/gch2.201800076
|
| [101] |
Capelot M, Unterlass MM, Tournilhac F, et al. (2012) Catalytic control of the vitrimer glass transition. ACS Macro Lett 1: 789−792. https://doi.org/10.1021/mz300239f doi: 10.1021/mz300239f
|
| [102] |
Bandegi A, Gray TA, Mitchell S, et al (2023) Vitrimerization of cross-linked elastomers: A mechanochemical approach for recycling thermoset polymers. Mater Adv 4: 2648−2658. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3MA00098B doi: 10.1039/D3MA00098B
|
| [103] |
Chabert E, Vial J, Cauchois JP, et al (2016) Influence of treating parameters on thermomechanical properties of recycled epoxy-acid vitrimers. Soft Matter 12: 4838. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6SM00257A doi: 10.1039/C6SM00257A
|
| [104] |
Dos Santos LM, Carone LP, Dullius J, et al. (2013) Using different catalysts in the chemical recycling of waste from flexible polyurethane foams. Polímeros: Ciência e Tecnologia 23: 608−613. https://doi.org/10.4322/polimeros.2013.096 doi: 10.4322/polimeros.2013.096
|
| [105] |
Jamei OA, Mao E, Gray TG, et al. (2024) Vitrimerization of cross-linked poly (ethylene-vinyl acetate): The effect of catalysts. RSC Appl Polym 2: 905−913. https://doi.org/10.1039/D4LP00112E doi: 10.1039/D4LP00112E
|
Figures(6) / Tables(2)
Wilson Uzochukwu Eze. Recycling technologies for thermosetting plastics and their composites: Advances through vitrimerization[J]. Clean Technologies and Recycling, 2026, 6(2): 208-233. doi: 10.3934/ctr.2026009
DownLoad: