Research article Special Issues

The shield of the screen: The role of anger on the development of social media addiction and internet gaming disorder

  • Received: 23 April 2024 Revised: 21 June 2024 Accepted: 05 July 2024 Published: 24 September 2024
  • This study aims to explore if the dimensions of anger can be risk factors for the development of social media addiction and an internet gaming disorder, considering that the correlation between anger and these specific subcategories of internet addiction can represent a core intervention in their prevention and treatment. 477 subjects, recruited among the general population, were assessed on-line by the following tools: STAXI–2; BSMAS, and IGDS9–SF. A correlation analyses showed a significantly positive relationship between the total score of the BSMAS and the STAXI–2 scales SANG (p < 0.0001), TANG (p < 0.0001), AX–O (p = 0.003), and AX–I (p < 0.0001), and between the total score of the IGDS9–SF and the STAXI–2 scales SANG (p = 0.002), TANG (p < 0.0001), AX–O (p = 0.001), AX–I (p < 0.0001), and AC–O (p = 0.004). A linear regression model showed how TANG and AX–I were direct predictors of the BSMAS total scores, and how AX–I was a direct predictor of the IGDS9–SF total scores. It appears plausible that there is a significant correlation between the dimensions of anger and the emergence of social media addiction and internet gaming: internet usage may serve as a coping mechanism for emotional or social challenges and as a protective screen to deal with negative emotions.

    Citation: Fiammetta Iannuzzo, Clara Lombardo, Maria Catena Silvestri, Fabrizio Turiaco, Giovanni Genovese, Caterina Rombolà, Carmela Mento, Maria Rosaria Anna Muscatello, Antonio Bruno. The shield of the screen: The role of anger on the development of social media addiction and internet gaming disorder[J]. AIMS Public Health, 2024, 11(4): 1002-1012. doi: 10.3934/publichealth.2024051

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  • This study aims to explore if the dimensions of anger can be risk factors for the development of social media addiction and an internet gaming disorder, considering that the correlation between anger and these specific subcategories of internet addiction can represent a core intervention in their prevention and treatment. 477 subjects, recruited among the general population, were assessed on-line by the following tools: STAXI–2; BSMAS, and IGDS9–SF. A correlation analyses showed a significantly positive relationship between the total score of the BSMAS and the STAXI–2 scales SANG (p < 0.0001), TANG (p < 0.0001), AX–O (p = 0.003), and AX–I (p < 0.0001), and between the total score of the IGDS9–SF and the STAXI–2 scales SANG (p = 0.002), TANG (p < 0.0001), AX–O (p = 0.001), AX–I (p < 0.0001), and AC–O (p = 0.004). A linear regression model showed how TANG and AX–I were direct predictors of the BSMAS total scores, and how AX–I was a direct predictor of the IGDS9–SF total scores. It appears plausible that there is a significant correlation between the dimensions of anger and the emergence of social media addiction and internet gaming: internet usage may serve as a coping mechanism for emotional or social challenges and as a protective screen to deal with negative emotions.



    Among farm animals, ruminants are of particular interest because they can produce food on non-arable lands and transform resources not used for human consumption, such as grass and fodder, into edible products [1]. Small ruminants like sheep and goats in particular, enact a crucial role for the economy of millions of people worldwide, providing meat, milk, skin, wool, and fiber for centuries [2]. Small ruminants have been extremely important specifically for the Mediterranean region, representing the only region in the world where they account for roughly one-third of the total ruminant population [3].

    Traditionally, sheep farming has been the most important sector of Greek livestock farming, mainly due to environmental, social, religious, and economic factors. According to Eurostat, in 2020, the population of sheep reared in Greece was approximately 7.7 million head, occupying the 4th position amongst the European Union's sheep flocks[4]. Sheep are multi-purpose animals and can utilize the poor forages of the mountainous regions [5], making them the ideal animal for farming in many marginal communities throughout Greece.

    In contrast to northern Europe, the main food product of sheep in Greece is milk instead of meat. In 2020, according to Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Greece was the top sheep milk producer in Europe (almost 950.000 tons), being the only European country producing more ovine than cow's milk [6]. Most of this milk is designated for cheese production, since Greece possesses 23 protected designations of origin (PDO) cheeses, with the frontline being feta cheese.

    The Greek sheep farming is the predominant traditional livestock production system, adapted to the special characteristics of the regional microclimate. It is performed in lands that are unsuitable for cultivation or any other agricultural operation [7]. The farms are extensive, small-sized and family-owned, with a low level of mechanization in most cases [8]. Traditional breeding and management practices are followed resulting to a pronounced seasonal character of a 5–6 months productive duration. Specifically, the interval for sheep reproduction lies between September and mid-March [9], reducing the availability of fresh milk in some periods of the year.

    Naturally, sheep in temperate climates present a seasonal character of breeding, controlled mainly by the photoperiodism [9]. Consequently, most of the milk production is concentrated over a period of a few months (early winter to late spring), and after the milk production ends, the animals enter a non-productive period (anestrus/anovulatory period). Although this natural mechanism was induced to protect offspring from the winter, it creates an organizational challenge to both farmers and industry as the spotted differences in production over the year are uneconomical.

    Many strategies have been used to either premature or to extend the reproduction period, including the ram effect and the use of exogenous hormones (mainly progestogen sponges or melatonin implants) [6]. In general, the hormonal treatments are considered practical and easy-to-use but raise concerns lately, regarding their effects on human health and their environmental footprint [10]. With respect to these concerns, a more eco-friendly procedure has also been used to control the induction of ovulation and the synchronization of estrus in sheep [11]. The main component of this method is prostaglandin (PGF2a), a luteolytic agent that can be easily administered by intramuscular injection and is metabolized by the lung [12]. In accordance with male effect, the use of PGF2a is also considered a clean and ethical method [13] but its effectiveness depends on the presence of a corpus luteum, and thus it has to be applied during the breeding season [14]. More recent data support that marker or genotype-assisted selection schemes could result to animals that are less inclined to the reproduction seasonality [15].

    In Greece, the ram effect and the use of exogenous hormones are the two main strategies used for the synchronization of estrus in sheep. The PGF2a method is either not well known among farmers or considered to be less efficient than the other two [16]. Therefore, the scope of the present study was the evaluation of the effects of two different methods/treatments of controlling ovine reproduction (ram effect and a combination of eco-friendly substances) in three Greek indigenous sheep breeds, namely Florina, Karagouniko, and Chios.

    All the experiments were conducted according to Directive 2010/63/EU (http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2010/63/2019-06-26) on the protection of animals used for scientific purposes.

    Chios sheep breed is one of the most productive dairy-purposed Greek breeds with an annual milk production of 180–250 kg. The average bodyweight of adult rams and ewes is about 80 and 55 Kg, respectively, while the mean prolificacy is about 200 offsprings per birth [17].

    The Florina sheep breed is characterized as a dual-purpose animal (i.e., reared for both milk and meat). The average milk yield per ewe and season is around 110 Kg while the average bodyweight of adult rams and ewes is about 82.5 and 60 Kg, respectively [18]. The Florina breed expresses estrus with an intense seasonal pattern, namely from mid-summer up to late autumn, whereas Chios reproduction, although reproductively seasonal too, is influenced to a lesser extent by seasonality, expressing estrus earlier in spring and early summer as well, hence almost throughout the year.

    Finally, Karagouniko sheep, originating from Thessaly, Greece, is a breed mostly reared for milk production and one of the most bred breeds in Greece. Mature ewes weigh approximately 65 kg and mature rams weigh approximately 75 kg. Their milk production is approximately 190 kg annually and their multiplicity is 1.3. Like Florina, Karagouniko is characterized by intense reproduction seasonality levels.

    The experimental procedures were carried out in the summer of three consecutive years i.e., 2020, 2021 and 2022. 180 ewes were used, equally divided between the three Greek sheep breeds, Chios breed (n = 60), Florina breed (n = 60), and Karagouniko (n = 60). The ewes were 2–3 years old, with the two formers (Chios and Florina) bred at the Research Institute of Animal Science of the Hellenic Agricultural Organization ELGO-DEMETER in Paralimni Giannitson and the latter (Karagouniko) in a commercial farm in Karditsa (Central Greece). The selection of the animals participating in the experiments was based on the pedigree data of the Institute, dated 20 years ago, to avoid using animals that were relatives. Similarly, regarding the commercial farm (i.e. a well-organized flock), special attention was given by the farmer to avoid closely related animals' mattings.

    Each breed was divided into two experimental groups of 30 ewes each, and each group to 3 sub-groups of 10 ewes each, with 1 ram assigned at each sub-group. In group ECO, a dose of GnRH (Receptal®, MSD Animal Health, UK) was administered at day 0, followed by an intramuscular injection of prostaglandin (EstrumateTM, MSD Animal Health, UK) seven days later and another dose of GnRH at day 9. In group ME, sexually active males were introduced to the females that had been isolated for 3 months by visual contact from males at a geographic distance more than 500 m. After the treatments, female and male sheep remained together for two more months to identify return to estrus.

    All ewes were in good health, in anestrus period, and at the same lactation period. They were kept inside the barn for the whole duration of the experiment, in pens measuring approximately 25 m2 per group of 10 ewes and were fed with the same ration. The ration consisted of alfalfa hay, wheat straw, and concentrate. The average amount of each feedstuff was 0.2, 1.0, and 1.5 kg/ewe/day for the wheat straw, alfalfa hay, and concentrates, respectively. The concentrates consisted of maize grain, barley, wheat middling, sunflower meal, soybean meal, and mineral and vitamin premix. The average feed offered (g/ewe/day) and concentrate ingredients (g/kg) of the experimental groups are presented in Table 1.

    Table 1.  Average feed offered (g/ewe/day) and concentrate ingredients (g/kg) of the sheep breeds throughout the experimental period.
    Florina Chios Karagouniko
    Average feed offered (g/ewe/day)
    Wheat straw 200 200 200
    Alfalfa hay 1000 1000 1000
    Concentrate 1500 1500 1500
    Concentrate ingredients (g/kg)
    Maize 344 344 344
    Barley 200 200 200
    Wheat middling 100 100 100
    Sunflower meal 160 160 160
    Soyabean meal 155 155 155
    Premix vitamins and minerals 41 41 41

     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    For each year of the experiment, a different set of ewes was used. The experimental design with the respective days of application of each treatment is presented in detail in Table 2.

    Table 2.  Annual experimental design.
    Year 1 (2020) Year 2 (2021) Year 3 (2022)
    Groups ME ECO ME ECO ME ECO
    Male introduction 15/06/2020 - 22/07/2021 - 20/07/2022 -
    1st dose of GNRH - 30/06/2020 - 22/07/2021 - 20/07/2022
    PGF2a - 07/07/2020 - 29/07/2021 - 27/07/2022
    2nd dose of GNRH - 09/07/2020 - 31/07/2021 - 29/07/2022
    Male introduction - 10/07/2020 - 01/08/2021 - 30/07/2022
    Male separation 03/08/2020 03/08/2020 16/09/2021 16/09/2021 20/09/2022 20/09/2022

     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    The traits of reproduction that were estimated in all groups of ewes were: (1) the percentage of ewes that expressed estrus, (2) the days after male introduction that each female expressed estrus, (3) the percentage of females that gave birth (fecundity), (4) the gestation length. and (5) the number of offsprings per female (prolificacy). Traits 1 and 2 were estimated through visual observation of the receptibility of the ewes to adult, fertile rams that have been used in previous mattings.

    The percentages of females that expressed estrus and gave birth were analyzed using the chi-square test. The days after males' introduction that each female expressed estrus, the gestation length and the prolificacy were submitted to a multivariate ANOVA treating the breed and the treatment as fixed factors. Pair wise comparisons were tested at 0.05 significance level with Tukey's honest test and the results are presented as least square means ± standard error of estimation (pooled SEM). All statistical analyses were performed using STAT GRAPHICS software.

    The results of the three consecutive years of the experiment are presented in Table 3. For the first year, when using the male effect, 93% of Florina ewes, 95% of Chios ewes, and 98% of the Karagouniko ewes expressed estrus and 90%, 93.3%, and 94% of them gave birth, respectively. The average days after male introduction for estrus expression was 20.2 days for the Florina and 19.6 days for the Karagouniko, while for the Chios, the respective figure was smaller (13.3 days, P < 0.05). Gestation length was not different between groups while the Chios ewes had higher prolificacy than the other two breeds (1.89 for Chios, 1.44 for Florina, and 1.53 for Karagouniko). After using the eco-friendly substances, the Florina and the Karagouniko ewes expressed estrus and gave birth at significantly lower proportions than the Chios (P < 0.05). Gestation length was not different between groups while the same applied also for the prolificacy (Table 3).

    Table 3.  Reproduction traits of Florina, Chios, and Karagouniko ewes after male effect (ME) or the use of ecofriendly substances (ECO) per year of the experiment.
    Florina Chios Karagouniko
    ME ECO ME ECO ME ECO SEM P-value
    1st year (2020)
    Estrus expression (%) 93.0a 65.0b 95.0a 85.0a 98.0a 68.0a - 0.001
    Estrus expression (days)* 20.2a 3.1c 13.3b 2.7c 19.6a 2.8c 1.3 0.000
    Fecundity (%) 90.0a 56.7b 93.3a 83.0a 94.0a 54.0b - 0.002
    Gestation length (days) 150.7 153.2 151.4 152.7 151.3 152.9 0.9 0.081
    Prolificacy 1.44c 1.59ab 1.89a 1.82a 1.53b 1.68b 0.14 0.033
    2nd year (2021)
    Estrus expression (%) 93.0 80.0 95.0 83.0 98.0 82.0 - 0.258
    Estrus expression (days)* 15.4a 1.9b 15.0a 3.0b 14.3a 2.3b 1.1 0.000
    Fecundity (%) 90.0 70.0 90.0 80.0 92.0 70.0 - 0.126
    Gestation length (days) 151.3 151.0 149.4 152.3 151.5 151.8 0.7 0.653
    Prolificacy 1.40b 1.29b 1.96a 1.92a 1.49b 1.33b 0.12 0.001
    3rd year (2022)
    Estrus expression (%) 90.0 97.0 95.0 93.0 96.0 93.0 - 0.654
    Estrus expression (days)* 16.6a 2.6b 13.0a 4.0b 15.5a 2.9b 1.2 0.000
    Fecundity (%) 86.7 96.7 93.3 90.0 88.5 93.5 - 0.536
    Gestation length (days) 149.9 151.5 148.5 152.0 150.8 152.1 0.9 0.635
    Prolificacy 1.42b 1.66ab 2.00a 2.07a 1.44b 1.68ab 0.14 0.006
    a, b Means in a row with different superscripts differ significantly (P < 0.05). * Estrus expression in days after male induction.

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    In the second year of the experiment, for both treatments (male effect vs use of eco-friendly substances) there were no significant differences between the breeds in terms of estrus expression and fecundity (Table 3). Estrus expression in days was comparable between the groups for each treatment but significantly less for the use of eco-friendly substances in contrast to male effect. Gestation length was the same irrespective of breed or treatment while prolificacy was higher for the Chios in both treatment (P < 0.05).

    Comparably to the second year of the experiment, in the third year, there were no differences between the breeds in estrus expression, fecundity, and gestation length, irrespective to the treatment. The days to estrus expression were fewer for the use of ecofriendly substances in comparison to the male effect in both breeds (P < 0.05) while prolificacy was higher for the Chios breed, especially for the male effect.

    Table 4 presents a factorial analysis of reproduction traits of Florina, Chios, and Karagouniko ewes after male effect or the use of ecofriendly substances. The breed had no effect on the proportion of estrus expression, fecundity and the gestation length. On the other hand, Chios ewes expressed estrus in fewer days than the Florina ones, with the Karagouniko ewes presenting intermediate values (P < 0.05). At the same time, Chios ewes were more prolific than the other two breeds.

    Table 4.  Factorial analysis of reproduction traits of Florina, Chios, and Karagouniko ewes after male effect (ME) or the use of ecofriendly substances (ECO).
    Estrus expression (%) Estrus expression (days) Fecundity (%) Gestation length (days) Prolificacy
    Breed
    Florina 86.7 10.1a 81.7 151.5 1.52b
    Chios 92.2 8.4b 88.3 151.5 1.95a
    Karagouniko 89.4 9.6ab 82.2 151.9 1.53b
    SEM - 0.5 - 0.3 0.06
    Treatment
    ME 95.2a 15.5a 91.1a 152.8 1.73
    ECO 83.7b 3.0b 77.0b 151.2 1.74
    SEM - 0.5 - 0.3 0.06
    Year
    2020 84.4a 9.9 78.3b 152.0 1.68
    2021 88.9ab 8.8 82.2ab 151.2 1.73
    2022 95.0b 9.0 91.7a 151.2 1.80
    SEM - 0.6 - 0.4 0.07
    P-value
    Breed 0.230 0.012 0.159 0.975 0.000
    Treatment 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.864 0.881
    Year 0.005 0.349 0.002 0.190 0.479

     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    The use of ecofriendly substances significantly lowered the days from male induction to estrus expression, an observation that was evident in all three trials of the experiment. Moreover, it lowered the proportion of estrus expression as well as the fecundity of the ewes while it had no effect on gestation length and the prolificacy of the ewes (P < 0.05).

    Finally, the trial (year) did not affect estrus expression in days, gestation length, or prolificacy. Nevertheless, in the third trial (2022), the ewes had higher proportion of estrus expression and fecundity than in the first trial (2020), while the second trial (2021) presented intermediate values (P < 0.05).

    Sheep farming in most Mediterranean countries is performed using indigenous breeds, a practice that enhances the conservation efforts of precious genetic resources and is very important for regional development [19]. Nevertheless, this practice is also associated with long anestrus periods resulting in production of dairy products only in certain times of the year [20]. In this study, an evaluation of two methods for estrus induction was performed (male effect and the use of eco-friendly substances) to investigate two Greek breeds with a strict seasonal reproductive pattern (i.e., Florina and Karagouniko) and one that is considered non-seasonal with an extensive breeding period throughout the year (Chios).

    The male effect is a long-established animal manipulation method used for the induction of ovulation and the synchronization of estrus in sheep and goats [21]. It is considered clean, green, and ethical because it omits the usage of any drugs or hormones, it is environmentally friendly and does not interfere with animal welfare [22]. Its effect, however, is regulated by the depth of anestrus of ewes [23]. In most cases, higher percentages of success have been reported in breeds with short anestrus periods, like the Merino [24] or the Chios breed used in this study. In breeds with long anestrus periods, the success of the ram effect is limited when applied long before the normal breeding season and it increases in a period 2–4 weeks before the normal breeding season [23]. This was very effectively evaluated in the work of Nugent et al. [25], where Dorset ewes responded more efficiently to the effect than Hampshire ewes, and this would have also been the case for the Florina and Karagouniko breeds utilized in this study if the rams were introduced to the females earlier in spring.

    The use of PGF2a is also a well-established method for the induction of ovulation and the synchronization of estrus in sheep and goats [26,27], but despite its obvious advantages in terms of environmental sustainability, it is not commonly used in Greece. The reasons for this are mainly the lack of knowledge of Greek farmers, the ability of PGF2a to provoke termination of gestation in pregnant ewes, when insufficient management data are kept, as well as the fact that it must be applied during the breeding season, while most indigenous Greek sheep breeds have large anestrus periods [16]. In the tropics, where the breeding season is continuous, early reports have demonstrated the ability of PGF2a to control the induction of ovulation in ewes [28,29] and their results were also confirmed in the more recent works of Fierro et al. [30] and Fierro, Viñoles and Olivera-Muzante [31].

    In this study, the average estrus expression and fecundity in all three examined breeds was comparable, with the exemption of Florina and Karagouniko ewes treated with the eco-friendly substances in the first year, in mid-June. This phenomenon could be attributed to the strong seasonal pattern in estrus expression of these breeds, which are usually bred from mid-summer up to late autumn [19]. These results have also been reflected in the factorial analysis, where in the first trial lower proportion of estrus expression and fecundity were found, as well as in the effect of the treatment, since in the next two years of the experiment, estrus expression and fecundity were comparable among the experimental groups. In terms of the average fecundity, similar proportions have been reported for Florina by Michailidis et al. [32], for Chios by Banos and Avdi [33] and for Karagouniko by Kouimtzis et al. [34].

    The average length to estrus expression was significantly lower in the eco-friendly method than the procedure using male effect. After PGF2a administration, the ewes express estrus within 5 days while when using the male effect there are usually two picks in estrus expression among the herd, one at approximately day 18 and one around day 24 [23]. In this study, for the Florina breed, 48% of the animals expressed estrus 14–19 days after the ram induction for year one and 37% of the animals between days 20 and 29. For the second and third year of the experiment, the numbers are 70% and 19% and 54% and 31%, respectively. For Chios, in all three years of the experiment, about 50% of the ewes expressed estrus 14–19 days after ram induction and the about 20% between days 20 and 29.

    According to the results of this study, the Chios sheep is much more prolific than the Florina and the Karagouniko, a result that was evident in the factorial analysis. This is a common observation and is reported by many authors [32,35]. In fact, the mean prolificacy of the Chios breed is between 1.85 and 2.00, being one of the most prolific Greek breeds, with twin lambing happening very often [36]. On the other hand, the Florina breed is categorized in the least prolific Greek breeds, with the majority of parturitions resulting in a single offspring [37].

    With respect to our results, both methods for the induction and synchronization of estrus (male effect and PGF2a administration) could be used in sheep reproduction with promising results. Nevertheless, the male effect seems to be more efficient in indigenous breeds with long anestrus periods. In contrast to the hormonal methods that use progestogen sponges or melatonin implants, the male effect and PGF2a administration methods are more environmentally sustainable and therefore should be preferred. Ongoing research supports the fact that marker or genotype-assisted selection schemes could result in animals that are less inclined to the reproduction seasonality, and thus exogenous methods of reproductive manipulation are less needed.

    The authors declare they have not used Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools in the creation of this article.

    The research work was supported by the Hellenic Foundation for Research and Innovation (HFRI) under the 'First Call for HFRI Research Projects to support Faculty members and Researchers and the procurement of high-cost research equipment grant' (Project Number: HFRI-FM17- 2987).

    The authors stated that have no conflict of interest to declare.


    Acknowledgments



    This study is not funded by any agency and is being conducted by the authors independently.

    Authors' contribution



    Fiammetta Iannuzzo: conceptualization, writing – original draft, and writing – review & editing. Clara Lombardo: data curation, formal analysis. Maria Catena Silvestri: software and validation. Fabrizio Turiaco: software and validation. Giovanni Genovese: investigation and resources. Caterina Rombolà: investigation and resources. Carmela Mento: visualization, data curation and formal analysis. Maria Rosaria Anna Muscatello: visualization, supervision, and writing – review. Antonio Bruno: conceptualization, methodology, supervision, writing – review & editing.

    Conflict of interest



    Fiammetta Iannuzzo, Giovanni Genovese, and Antonio Bruno are the guest editors for special issue of AIMS Public Health and was not involved in the editorial review or the decision to publish this article. All authors declare that there are no competing interests.

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