Performance improvement of lead-free CsSnCl<sub>3</sub>-based perovskite solar cell using multiple ETLs: A SCAPS-1D simulation study

Rony Tota; Tarikul Islam Tasin; Md. Morsalin; Ragab A. Sayed; Sheeraz Iqbal; Shak Mahmudul Hasan; Md. Zamil Sultan; Md. Muien Ahmed Arnob; Rony Tota; Tarikul Islam Tasin; Md. Morsalin; Ragab A. Sayed; Sheeraz Iqbal; Shak Mahmudul Hasan; Md. Zamil Sultan; Md. Muien Ahmed Arnob

doi:10.3934/ctr.2026002

Clean Technologies and Recycling

2026, Volume 6, Issue 1: 33-55. doi: 10.3934/ctr.2026002

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Performance improvement of lead-free CsSnCl₃-based perovskite solar cell using multiple ETLs: A SCAPS-1D simulation study

1.
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University, Dinajpur, Bangladesh
2.
Automotive and Tractors Technology Department, Faculty of Technology and Education, Capital University – Helwan Branch, Cairo, Egypt
3.
Interdisciplinary Research Center for Sustainable Energy Systems, Research and Innovation, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
4.
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, 13100 Muzaffarabad, Pakistan

Received: 29 September 2025 Revised: 09 December 2025 Accepted: 12 December 2025 Published: 07 January 2026

Cesium tin chloride (CsSnCl₃) is a potential and ecologically safe material for lead-free perovskite solar cells (PSCs). CsSnCl₃ is a strong candidate for sustainable energy applications due to its affordability, high energy efficiency, and excellent thermal stability. We simulated various CsSnCl₃ device structures with different electron transport layers (ETLs)—viz. WS₂, C60, and ZnSe—in combination with CBTS as the hole-transport layer (HTL), using the one-dimensional solar cell capacitance simulator (SCAPS-1D). We quantitatively evaluated the influence of the absorber layer thickness, doping concentration, defect density, and characteristics of the ETL and HTL on relevant photovoltaic (PV) parameters, such as power conversion efficiency (PCE) (η), short-circuit current density (J_SC), open-circuit voltage (V_OC), and fill factor (FF). The findings revealed that the choice of ETL has a great impact on the performance of the device. WS₂, C60, and ZnSe led to the highest PCEs at 22.09%, 19.94%, and 21.80%. Then, the effect of other factors was investigated, including capacitance-voltage behavior, interface defect, Mott–Schottky behavior, current density-voltage (J-V), quantum efficiency (QE), and recombination rates. The results were compared with the earlier research conducted on CsSnCl₃-based PSCs to assess enhancements and long-term sustainability. To summarize, this paper proposes the most effective and high-performance device configurations in lead-free CsSnCl₃-based PSCs, as part of developing sustainable and cost-effective PV technologies.
- Lead-free PSCs,
- CsSnCl₃,
- SCAPS-1D,
- CBTS as HTL,
- different ETLs
Citation: Rony Tota, Tarikul Islam Tasin, Md. Morsalin, Ragab A. Sayed, Sheeraz Iqbal, Shak Mahmudul Hasan, Md. Zamil Sultan, Md. Muien Ahmed Arnob. Performance improvement of lead-free CsSnCl3-based perovskite solar cell using multiple ETLs: A SCAPS-1D simulation study[J]. Clean Technologies and Recycling, 2026, 6(1): 33-55. doi: 10.3934/ctr.2026002

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Abstract

Cesium tin chloride (CsSnCl₃) is a potential and ecologically safe material for lead-free perovskite solar cells (PSCs). CsSnCl₃ is a strong candidate for sustainable energy applications due to its affordability, high energy efficiency, and excellent thermal stability. We simulated various CsSnCl₃ device structures with different electron transport layers (ETLs)—viz. WS₂, C60, and ZnSe—in combination with CBTS as the hole-transport layer (HTL), using the one-dimensional solar cell capacitance simulator (SCAPS-1D). We quantitatively evaluated the influence of the absorber layer thickness, doping concentration, defect density, and characteristics of the ETL and HTL on relevant photovoltaic (PV) parameters, such as power conversion efficiency (PCE) (η), short-circuit current density (J_SC), open-circuit voltage (V_OC), and fill factor (FF). The findings revealed that the choice of ETL has a great impact on the performance of the device. WS₂, C60, and ZnSe led to the highest PCEs at 22.09%, 19.94%, and 21.80%. Then, the effect of other factors was investigated, including capacitance-voltage behavior, interface defect, Mott–Schottky behavior, current density-voltage (J-V), quantum efficiency (QE), and recombination rates. The results were compared with the earlier research conducted on CsSnCl₃-based PSCs to assess enhancements and long-term sustainability. To summarize, this paper proposes the most effective and high-performance device configurations in lead-free CsSnCl₃-based PSCs, as part of developing sustainable and cost-effective PV technologies.

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