Translational design and clinical validation of a non-invasive glucose monitor based on oxygen saturation and heart rate signals

Mustafa F. Mahmood; Suhair M. Yaseen; Saleem Latteef Mohammed; Mustafa F. Mahmood; Suhair M. Yaseen; Saleem Latteef Mohammed

doi:10.3934/bioeng.2025028

AIMS Bioengineering

2025, Volume 12, Issue 4: 613-637. doi: 10.3934/bioeng.2025028

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Research article

Translational design and clinical validation of a non-invasive glucose monitor based on oxygen saturation and heart rate signals

Department of Medical Instrumentation Techniques Engineering, Electrical Engineering Technical College, Middle Technical University, Baghdad, Iraq

Received: 24 September 2025 Revised: 30 November 2025 Accepted: 03 December 2025 Published: 09 December 2025

Diabetes is a chronic disorder that is among the most prevalent diseases in many parts of the world, as it is brought about by high levels of sugar in the blood, which may cause severe complications in the heart, blood vessels, kidneys, and nerves. Thus, it is important to monitor blood glucose continuously. The use of traditional finger-prick methods was done away with in this study, and it was substituted with a noninvasive blood glucose meter. The proposed system has an optical sensor known as the MAX30100, an LCD, and an Arduino Mega 2560 microprocessor to provide real-time measurements. The device can determine the glucose content through a combination of digital filtering and mathematical computations implemented within the microcontroller through the correlation of heart rate (HR) and oxygen saturation (SpO₂). The 120 samples (females and males, fasting, normal, and diabetic) were tested with the system and compared with a commercial reference device (Accu-Chek). There were high accuracy levels of 97.5% agreement, a sensitivity of 97.94%, and a specificity of 95.65%. Strong correlations were found. HR was negatively correlated with SpO₂ (r = −0.936, p < 0.001) and positively correlated with glucose (R² = 0.860, p < 0.001). The validity and clinical reliability of the system were validated by statistical methods such as the Clarke error grid, Bland–Altman test, and error test. The suggested approach showed promise as a practical and affordable substitute for regular blood glucose monitoring, and it achieved greater accuracy than that in earlier research.
- Arduino Mega 2560,
- Clarke error grid analysis,
- noninvasive glucose,
- MAX30100 sensor,
- statistical analyses
Citation: Mustafa F. Mahmood, Suhair M. Yaseen, Saleem Latteef Mohammed. Translational design and clinical validation of a non-invasive glucose monitor based on oxygen saturation and heart rate signals[J]. AIMS Bioengineering, 2025, 12(4): 613-637. doi: 10.3934/bioeng.2025028

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Abstract

Diabetes is a chronic disorder that is among the most prevalent diseases in many parts of the world, as it is brought about by high levels of sugar in the blood, which may cause severe complications in the heart, blood vessels, kidneys, and nerves. Thus, it is important to monitor blood glucose continuously. The use of traditional finger-prick methods was done away with in this study, and it was substituted with a noninvasive blood glucose meter. The proposed system has an optical sensor known as the MAX30100, an LCD, and an Arduino Mega 2560 microprocessor to provide real-time measurements. The device can determine the glucose content through a combination of digital filtering and mathematical computations implemented within the microcontroller through the correlation of heart rate (HR) and oxygen saturation (SpO₂). The 120 samples (females and males, fasting, normal, and diabetic) were tested with the system and compared with a commercial reference device (Accu-Chek). There were high accuracy levels of 97.5% agreement, a sensitivity of 97.94%, and a specificity of 95.65%. Strong correlations were found. HR was negatively correlated with SpO₂ (r = −0.936, p < 0.001) and positively correlated with glucose (R² = 0.860, p < 0.001). The validity and clinical reliability of the system were validated by statistical methods such as the Clarke error grid, Bland–Altman test, and error test. The suggested approach showed promise as a practical and affordable substitute for regular blood glucose monitoring, and it achieved greater accuracy than that in earlier research.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the Electrical Engineering Technical College at Middle Technical University in Baghdad, Iraq, for assisting them in carrying out the experiments.

Ethical approval

No invasive procedures or biological samples were involved in this study, and it did not involve any medical procedures or the use of identifiable personal information. The sensor commercially available in the form of MAX30100 was used to record only noninvasive optical measurements (PPG signals: HR and SpO₂). No photos, fingerprints, faces, or biometric data of the volunteers were documented at any point, and all the data were completely anonymized before analysis. The study did not require formal approval by an institutional review board or ethical committee according to the institutional guidelines and ethics as stipulated in the Declaration of Helsinki on minimal-risk human research. Complete information regarding the objective and methods of the study was provided and verbal informed consent was given before participating. It was a voluntary activity, and the volunteers were not bound to attend in any way.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest related to this study.

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