Chemical analysis of gunshot residues (GSR): historical evolution, forensic relevance, technological advances, and contemporary challenges

Larissa Silva de Azevedo; Alex Soares Castro; Daniela Vieira Buchaim; Rogerio Leone Buchaim; Marcelo Firmino de Oliveira; João Paulo Mardegan Issa; Larissa Silva de Azevedo; Alex Soares Castro; Daniela Vieira Buchaim; Rogerio Leone Buchaim; Marcelo Firmino de Oliveira; João Paulo Mardegan Issa

doi:10.3934/bioeng.2025027

AIMS Bioengineering

2025, Volume 12, Issue 4: 593-612. doi: 10.3934/bioeng.2025027

Previous Article Next Article

Research article

Chemical analysis of gunshot residues (GSR): historical evolution, forensic relevance, technological advances, and contemporary challenges

1.
GEEQFor – Group of Electrochemistry, Electroanalytical Chemistry, and Forensic Chemistry - Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Philosophy, Sciences, and Letters of Ribeirão Preto - University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14040-900, Brazil
2.
Institute of Chemistry of São Carlos, University of São Paulo, São Carlos 13566-590, Brazil
3.
Graduate Program in Anatomy of Domestic and Wild Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo (FMVZ-USP), São Paulo 05508-270, Brazil
4.
Medical, Pharmacy and Dentistry School, University Center of Adamantina (FAI), Adamantina 17800-000, Brazil
5.
Department of Postgraduate, Dentistry School, Faculty of the Midwest Paulista (FACOP), Piratininga 17499-010, Brazil
6.
Department of Biological Sciences, Bauru School of Dentistry (FOB-USP), University of São Paulo, Bauru 17012-901, Brazil
7.
Department of Basic and Oral Biology, Ribeirão Preto School of Dentistry (FORP-USP), University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14040-904, Brazil

Received: 19 August 2025 Revised: 14 November 2025 Accepted: 18 November 2025 Published: 02 December 2025

This paper addresses the main methods of chemical analysis of gunshot residues (GSRs), highlighting both their social and forensic relevance. Forensic authorities have determined that crimes involving firearms, including homicides and suicides, constitute a significant portion of the cases examined. In these cases, GSR plays a central role in the reconstruction of crimes. Classical instrumental techniques such as atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) and scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX) remain widely used; however, recent advances have introduced innovative approaches including electrochemical sensors, portable devices, and luminescent metal–organic frameworks (MOFs). The objective of these novel methodologies is to enhance sensitivity, selectivity, and accessibility in forensic analysis. The objective of this article is to provide a critical overview of the historical development, current practices, and recent technological innovations in GSR detection. The text places particular emphasis on the challenges posed by heavy-metal-free “green” ammunition and highlights perspectives where electrochemistry, chemical markers, and artificial intelligence (AI) can enhance the robustness of forensic investigations. The primary findings indicate that the amalgamation of nanomaterials, portable platforms, and chemometric instruments possesses the capacity to transform the domain of GSR analysis, thereby enhancing the reliability of forensic evidence and fortifying its application within the justice system.
- analytical techniques,
- ballistics,
- electrochemical sensors,
- forensic chemistry,
- gunshot residues
Citation: Larissa Silva de Azevedo, Alex Soares Castro, Daniela Vieira Buchaim, Rogerio Leone Buchaim, Marcelo Firmino de Oliveira, João Paulo Mardegan Issa. Chemical analysis of gunshot residues (GSR): historical evolution, forensic relevance, technological advances, and contemporary challenges[J]. AIMS Bioengineering, 2025, 12(4): 593-612. doi: 10.3934/bioeng.2025027

Related Papers:

Abstract

This paper addresses the main methods of chemical analysis of gunshot residues (GSRs), highlighting both their social and forensic relevance. Forensic authorities have determined that crimes involving firearms, including homicides and suicides, constitute a significant portion of the cases examined. In these cases, GSR plays a central role in the reconstruction of crimes. Classical instrumental techniques such as atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) and scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX) remain widely used; however, recent advances have introduced innovative approaches including electrochemical sensors, portable devices, and luminescent metal–organic frameworks (MOFs). The objective of these novel methodologies is to enhance sensitivity, selectivity, and accessibility in forensic analysis. The objective of this article is to provide a critical overview of the historical development, current practices, and recent technological innovations in GSR detection. The text places particular emphasis on the challenges posed by heavy-metal-free “green” ammunition and highlights perspectives where electrochemistry, chemical markers, and artificial intelligence (AI) can enhance the robustness of forensic investigations. The primary findings indicate that the amalgamation of nanomaterials, portable platforms, and chemometric instruments possesses the capacity to transform the domain of GSR analysis, thereby enhancing the reliability of forensic evidence and fortifying its application within the justice system.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico – CNPq (Grant No. 302742/2022-0), the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior – CAPES (Grant No. 88887.613955/2021-00 and PROCAD No. 16/2020), and the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo – FAPESP (Grant No. 2022/12189-0). The authors also thank Linguistics and Translation Studies Group (GruLT), that revised and edited this full text.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Author contributions

Larissa Silva de Azevedo, Marcelo Firmino de Oliveira, and João Paulo Mardegan Issa were accountable for the conceptualization and design of the study. Larissa Silva de Azevedo and Alex Soares Castro formulated the approach, whilst Larissa Silva de Azevedo, Alex Soares Castro, Daniela Vieira Buchain, and Regerio Leone Buchain executed the research. Data curation and formal analysis were performed by Larissa Silva de Azevedo and Alex Soares Castro. The manuscript's original version was authored by Larissa Silva de Azevedo, with critical opinion and editing conducted by Larissa Silva de Azevedo, Marcelo Firmino de Oliveira, and João Paulo Mardegan Issa. Funding acquisition was spearheaded by Marcelo Firmino de Oliveira and João Paulo Mardegan Issa, who also oversaw the project comprehensively. All authors reviewed and endorsed the final version of the text.

References

[1]	Azevedo LS (2025) Electrochemical sensors and luminescent markers in gunshot residue (GSR) detection: innovations for forensic science [PhD thesis]. Brazil: University of São Paulo. https://doi.org/10.11606/T.75.2025.tde-05082025-162536
[2]	Waiselfisz JJ (2016) Homicídios por armas de fogo no Brasil. [Homicides by firearms in Brazil]: Flacso Brasil 71 p. Available from: https://www.gov.br/Homicides_by_firearms_in_Brazil.pdf. (in Portuguese)
[3]	Jorge MA (2020) An Analysis of the Measurement of Firearms Availability in Brazil. EALR 11: 97-125. https://doi.org/10.31501/ealr.v11i2.9143 (in Portuguese)
[4]	Luiz VHM (2016) Desenvolvimento de procedimentos e métodos analíticos no campo forense aplicando os princípios da química verde. [Development of analytical procedures and methods in the forensic field applying the principles of green chemistry]. Araraquara, SP, Brazil: Universidade Estadual Paulista - Unesp. Available from: http://hdl.handle.net/11449/136238. (in Portuguese)
[5]	Costa RA (2016) Análise de resíduo de disparo de armas de fogo utilizando ICP-MS: caracterização de munições limpas. [Analysis of firearm discharge residue using ICP-MS: characterization of clean ammunition]. Vitória, Espírito Santo, Brazil: Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo. Available from: https://sappg.ufes.br/Thesis_Costa_RA. (in Portuguese)
[6]	O'Mahony AM, Wang J (2013) Electrochemical detection of gunshot residue for forensic analysis: a review. Electroanalysis 25: 1341-1358. https://doi.org/10.1002/elan.201300054
[7]	Laycock G (2005) Crime, science and evaluation. Crim Justice Matters 62: 10-11. https://doi.org/10.1080/09627250508553089
[8]	Clarke RV (2004) Technology, criminology and crime science. Eu J Crim Policy Res 10: 55-63. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:CRIM.0000037557.42894.f7
[9]	Ribaux O, Walsh SJ, Margot P (2006) The contribution of forensic science to crime analysis and investigation: forensic intelligence. Forensic Sci Int 156: 171-181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.12.028
[10]	Morelato M, Beavis A, Tahtouh M, et al. (2013) The use of forensic case data in intelligence-led policing: the example of drug profiling. Forensic Sci Int 226: 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2013.01.003
[11]	Horswell J (2004) Crime scene investigation. The Practice Of Crime Scene Investigation . Boca Raton: CRC Press 33-76. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781420023244.ch1
[12]	Wallace JS (2018) Chemical Analysis of Firearms, Ammunition, and Gunshot Residue. Boca Raton: CRC Press. . https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315153254
[13]	Ribaux O, Girod A, Walsh S, et al. (2003) Forensic intelligence and crime analysis. Law Probab Risk 2: 47-60. https://doi.org/10.1093/lpr/2.1.47
[14]	Mistek E, Fikiet MA, Khandasammy SR, et al. (2018) Toward Locard's exchange principle: Recent developments in forensic trace evidence analysis. Anal Chem 91: 637-654. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.8b04704
[15]	Brazil (1988) Constituição da República Federativa do Brasil. [Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil]. Brasília: Supreme Federal Court. Available from: https://www.stf.jus.br/Constitution.pdf. (in Portuguese)
[16]	Redmayne M, Roberts P, Aitken C, et al. (2017) Forensic science evidence in questio. Expert Evidence and Scientific Proof in Criminal Trials . London: Routledge 325-334. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315094205-11
[17]	Mozayani A, Noziglia C (2010) The forensic laboratory handbook procedures and practice. New York: Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-60761-872-0
[18]	Ribaux O, Crispino F, Roux C (2015) Forensic intelligence: deregulation or return to the roots of forensic science?. Aust J Forensic Sci 47: 61-71. https://doi.org/10.1080/00450618.2014.906656
[19]	Maitre M, Kirkbride K, Horder M, et al. (2017) Current perspectives in the interpretation of gunshot residues in forensic science: a review. Forensic Sci Int 270: 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.09.003
[20]	Carter S, Clough R, Fisher A, et al. (2020) Atomic spectrometry update: review of advances in the analysis of metals, chemicals and materials. J Anal Atom Spectrom 35: 2410-2474. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/D0JA90067B
[21]	Costa RA, Motta LC, Destefani CA, et al. (2016) Gunshot residues (GSR) analysis of clean range ammunition using SEM/EDX, colorimetric test and ICP-MS: A comparative approach between the analytical techniques. Microchem J 129: 339-347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2016.07.017
[22]	Romolo FS, Margot P (2001) Identification of gunshot residue: a critical review. Forensic Sci Int 119: 195-211. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0379-0738(00)00428-X
[23]	Doña-Fernández A, de Andres-Gimeno I, Santiago-Toribio P, et al. (2018) Real-time detection of GSR particles from crime scene: a comparative study of SEM/EDX and portable LIBS system. Forensic Sci Int 292: 167-175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.09.021
[24]	Shrivastava P, Jain VK, Nagpal S (2021) Gunshot residue detection technologies—a review. Egyp J Forensic Sc 11: 11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41935-021-00223-9
[25]	Dalzell KA, Ledergerber T, Trejos T, et al. (2025) Incorporating organic gunshot residue into the forensic workflow: A study of preservation and stability of the pGSR and OGSR. Forensic Chem 44: 100651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forc.2025.100651
[26]	Meng H, Caddy B (1997) Gunshot residue analysis—a review. Forensic Sci 42: 553-570. https://doi.org/10.1520/JFS14167J
[27]	Harshey A, Srivastava A, Das T, et al. (2021) Trends in gunshot residue detection by electrochemical methods for forensic purpose. J Anal Test 5: 258-269. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41664-020-00152-x
[28]	Bartsch MR, Kobus H, Wainwright K (1996) An update on the use of the sodium rhodizonate test for the detection of lead originating from firearm discharges. J Forensic Sci 41: 1046-1051. https://doi.org/10.1520/JFS14047J
[29]	White R, Owens A (1987) Automation of gunshot residue detection and analysis by scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive X-ray analysis (SEM/EDX). J Forensic Sci 32: 1595-1603. https://doi.org/10.1520/JFS11219J
[30]	Sarkis JES, Neto ON, Viebig S, et al. (2007) Measurements of gunshot residues by sector field inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry—further studies with pistols. Forensic Sci Int 172: 63-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2006.12.007
[31]	Lloyd J (1986) Liquid chromatography of firearms propellants traces. J Energ Mater 4: 239-271. https://doi.org/10.1080/07370658608011344
[32]	Mathis JA, McCord BR (2003) Gradient reversed-phase liquid chromatographic-electrospray ionization mass spectrometric method for the comparison of smokeless powders. J Chromatogr A 988: 107-116. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9673(02)02055-1
[33]	Rodriguez JA, Ibarra IS, Galan-Vidal CA, et al. (2009) Multicommutated anodic stripping voltammetry at tubular bismuth film electrode for lead determination in gunshot residues. Electroanalysis 21: 452-458. https://doi.org/10.1002/elan.200804420
[34]	Lucena MA, Oliveira MF, Arouca AM, et al. (2017) Application of the metal–organic framework [Eu (BTC)] as a luminescent marker for gunshot residues: a synthesis, characterization, and toxicity study. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 9: 4684-4691. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.6b13474
[35]	Sessa F, Chisari M, Esposito M, et al. (2025) Advancing diagnostic tools in forensic science: the role of artificial intelligence in gunshot wound investigation—a systematic review. Forensic Sci 5: 30. https://doi.org/10.3390/forensicsci5030030
[36]	Khalid Z, Iqbal F, Fung BC (2024) Towards a unified XAI-based framework for digital forensic investigations. Forensic Sci Int-Digit 50: 301806. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsidi.2024.301806
[37]	O'Mahony AM, Wang J (2013) Nanomaterial-based electrochemical detection of explosives: a review of recent developments. Anal Methods 5: 4296-4309. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3AY40636A
[38]	Dalby O, Butler D, Birkett JW (2010) Analysis of gunshot residue and associated materials—a review. J Forensic Sci 55: 924-943. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1556-4029.2010.01370.x
[39]	Steinberg M, Leist Y, Goldschmidt P, et al. (1984) Spectrophotometric determination of nitrites in gunpowder residue on shooters' hands. J Forensic Sci 29: 464-470. https://doi.org/10.1520/JFS11694J
[40]	Madeira FB, Saide VG, Castro MT, et al. (2020) X-ray scattering and chemometrics as tools to assist in the identification of gunshot residues by wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. J Braz Chem Soc 31: 2470-2478. https://doi.org/10.21577/0103-5053.20200122
[41]	Miranda KL, Ortega-Ojeda FE, García-Ruíz C, et al. (2019) Shooting distance estimation based on gunshot residues analyzed by XRD and multivariate analysis. Chemom Intell Lab Syst 193: 103831. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemolab.2019.103831
[42]	Capannesi G, Ciavola C, Sedda AF (1993) Determination of firing distance and firing angle by neutron activation analysis in a case involving gunshot wounds. Forensic Sci Int 61: 75-84. https://doi.org/10.1016/0379-0738(93)90216-W
[43]	Ferreira LP, Nascentes CC, Valladão FN, et al. (2019) Feasibility of a new method for identification and discrimination of gunshot residues by total reflection X-ray fluorescence and principal component analysis. Braz Chem Soc 30: 2582-2589. https://doi.org/10.21577/0103-5053.20190173
[44]	Espinoza EON, Thornton JI (1994) Characterization of smokeless gunpowder by means of diphenylamine stabilizer and its nitrated derivatives. Anal Chim Acta 288: 57-69. https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-2670(94)85116-6
[45]	Turillazzi E, Di Peri GP, Nieddu A, et al. (2013) Analytical and quantitative concentration of gunshot residues (Pb, Sb, Ba) to estimate entrance hole and shooting-distance using confocal laser microscopy and inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometer analysis: An experimental study. Forensic Sci Int 231: 142-149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2013.04.006
[46]	Santos A, Ramos P, Fernandes L, et al. (2015) Firing distance estimation based on the analysis of GSR distribution on the target surface using ICP-MS—An experimental study with a 7.65 mm×17 mm Browning pistol (. 32 ACP). Forensic Sci Intl 247: 62-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.12.006
[47]	Lopez-Lopez M, Delgado JJ, Garcia-Ruiz C (2012) Ammunition identification by means of the organic analysis of gunshot residues using Raman spectroscopy. Anal Chem 84: 3581-3585. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac203237w
[48]	de Oliveira LP, Rocha DP, de Araujo WR, et al. (2018) Forensics in hand: new trends in forensic devices (2013–2017). Anal Methods 10: 5135-5163. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8AY01389F
[49]	Ott CE, Dalzell KA, Calderón-Arce PJ, et al. (2020) Evaluation of the simultaneous analysis of organic and inorganic gunshot residues within a large population data set using electrochemical sensors. J Forensic Sci 65: 1935-1944. https://doi.org/10.1111/1556-4029.14548
[50]	Weyermann C, Minzière VR, Tilborg T, et al. (2025) (Re-) positionning forensic research & development for increased impact in gunshot residue examination. Forensic Sci Int 2025: 112560. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2025.112560
[51]	Bruni AT, Velho JA, Oliveira MFd (2019) Fundamentos de Química Forense: uma análise prática da química que soluciona crimes. [Fundamentals of Forensic Chemistry: A practical analysis of the chemistry that solves crimes]. Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil: 2nd Ed., Millennium 18-31 p. (in Portuguese)
[52]	Velho JA, Geiser GC, Espindula A (2021) Ciências Forenses: uma introdução às principais áreas da criminalistica moderna. [Forensic Sciences: an introduction to the main areas of modern criminalistics]. Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil: 4nd Ed., Millenium 157-189 p. (in Portuguese)
[53]	Singh S, Cinti S (2023) Anodic and cathodic stripping voltammetry for metals sensing. Specialist Periodical Reports - Electrochemistry . UK: Royal Society of Chimistry 55-72. https://doi.org/10.1039/BK9781839169366-00055
[54]	Shrivastava P, Jain S, Kumar N, et al. (2021) Handheld device for rapid detection of lead (Pb²⁺) in gunshot residue for forensic application. Microche J 165: 106186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2021.106186
[55]	Silva LP, Brito LRE, Souza RBD, et al. (2024) Screen-printed electrode modified with bismuth film and chemometric techniques for on-site detection and classification of gunshot residues. Forensic Chem 38: 100563. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forc.2024.100563
[56]	Wongpakdee T, Crenshaw K, Wong HMF, et al. (2024) The development of screen-printed electrodes modified with gold and copper nanostructures for analysis of gunshot residue and low explosives. Forensic Sci Int 364: 112243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2024.112243
[57]	Castro SV, Lima AP, Rocha RG, et al. (2020) Simultaneous determination of lead and antimony in gunshot residue using a 3D-printed platform working as sampler and sensor. Anal Chim Acta 1130: 126-136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2020.07.033
[58]	Dalzell KA, Ott CE, Trejos T, et al. (2022) Comparison of portable and benchtop electrochemical instruments for detection of inorganic and organic gunshot residues in authentic shooter samples. J Forensic Sci 67: 1450-1460. https://doi.org/10.1111/1556-4029.15049
[59]	Broncová G (2022) Perspektivy elektroanalytické detekce pro stanovení povýstřelových zplodin. [Perspectives of Electroanalytical Sensing of Gunshot Residues]. Chemicke Listy 2022: 98-104. Available from: https://2018_02_098-104.pdf. (in Czech)
[60]	Wlodarczak P (2019) Machine learning and its applications. Boca Raton: CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429448782
[61]	McKeever C, Callan S, Warren S, Dempsey E (2022) Magnetic nanoparticle modified electrodes for voltammetric determination of propellant stabiliser diphenylamine. Talanta 238: 123039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2021.123039
[62]	Kaswan KS, Dhatterwal JS, Kumar S (2025) Wearable electrochemical and biosensors for forensic analysis: Challenges and research directions. Self-Powered Sensors 2025: 109-137. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-13792-1.00015-8
[63]	Cardoso RM, Castro SV, Silva MN, et al. (2019) 3D-printed flexible device combining sampling and detection of explosives. Sens Actuators B 292: 308-313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2019.04.126
[64]	Chedid AA, Azevedo LS, da Silva Galaço ARB, et al. (2023) Voltammetric analysis of luminescent markers in gunshot residues. J Forensic Sci 68: 780-789. https://doi.org/10.1111/1556-4029.15236
[65]	Polovková J, Šimonič M, Szegényi I (2015) Study of gunshot residues from Sintox® ammunition containing marking substances. Egypt J Forensic Sci 5: 174-179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejfs.2014.09.003
[66]	Weber I, Melo A, Lucena M, et al. (2014) Use of luminescent gunshot residues markers in forensic context. Forensic Sci Int 244: 276-284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.09.001
[67]	Arouca A, Lucena M, Rossiter R, et al. (2017) Use of luminescent gunshot residues markers in forensic context—Part II. Forensic Sci Int 281: 161-170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2017.09.022
[68]	Carneiro CR, Silva CS, de Carvalho MA, et al. (2019) Identification of luminescent markers for gunshot residues: fluorescence, Raman spectroscopy, and chemometrics. Anal Chem 91: 12444-12452. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.9b03079
[69]	Walker JT (1940) Bullet holes and chemical residues in shooting cases. J Crim Law Criminol 31: 497-521. https://doi.org/10.2307/1137588
[70]	Raghav A, Ouariach FZ, Raghav R, et al. (2025) Forensic ballistics and artificial intelligence: legal challenges and enhancing international framework for scientific evidence. Forensic Intelligence and Deep Learning Solutions in Crime Investigation . New York: IGI Global Scientific Publishing 163-182. https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3693-9405-2.ch009
[71]	Sauzier G, van Bronswijk W, Lewis SW (2021) Chemometrics in forensic science: approaches and applications. Analyst 146: 2415-2448. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1AN00082A
[72]	Kumar R, Sharma V (2018) Chemometrics in forensic science. TrAC Trends Anall Chem 105: 191-201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2018.05.010
[73]	Trejos T, Arroyo L, Menking-Hoggatt K, et al. (2022) Fast screening of firearm discharge residues by laser-based spectrochemical methods, electrochemical sensors, and chemometrics. Departament of Forensic and Investigative Science : 304797. Available from: https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/304797.pdf
[74]	Xu Z, Yu B, Wang F (2020) Artificial intelligence/machine learning solutions for mobile and wearable devices. Digital Health: Mobile and Wearable Devices for Participatory Health Applications . Netherlands: Elsevier 55-73.
[75]	Matzen T, Kukurin C, van de Wetering J, et al. (2022) Objectifying evidence evaluation for gunshot residue comparisons using machine learning on criminal case data. Forensic Sci Int 335: 111293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2022.111293
[76]	Giordano GF, Ferreira LF, Bezerra ÍR, et al. (2023) Machine learning toward high-performance electrochemical sensors. Anal Bioanal Chem 415: 3683-3692. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-023-04514-z
[77]	Puthongkham P, Wirojsaengthong S, Suea-Ngam A (2021) Machine learning and chemometrics for electrochemical sensors: moving forward to the future of analytical chemistry. Analyst 146: 6351-6364. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1AN01148K

Reader Comments

Your name:*

Email:*
© 2025 the Author(s), licensee AIMS Press. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)