Hormone receptor negative (HR-) breast cancer subtypes are etiologically distinct from the more common, less aggressive, and more treatable form of estrogen receptor positive (ER+) breast cancer. Numerous population-based studies have found that, in the United States, Black women are 2 to 3 times more likely to develop HR- breast cancer than White women. Much of the existing research on racial disparities in breast cancer subtype has focused on identifying predisposing genetic factors associated with African ancestry. This approach fails to acknowledge that racial stratification shapes a wide range of environmental and social exposures over the life course. Human stress genomics considers the role of individual stress perceptions on gene expression. Yet, the role of structurally rooted biopsychosocial processes that may be activated by the social patterning of stressors in an historically unequal society, whether perceived by individual black women or not, could also impact cellular physiology and gene expression patterns relevant to HR- breast cancer etiology. Using the weathering hypothesis as our conceptual framework, we develop a structural perspective for examining racial disparities in breast cancer subtypes, integrating important findings from the stress biology, breast cancer epidemiology, and health disparities literatures. After integrating key findings from these largely independent literatures, we develop a theoretically and empirically guided framework for assessing potential multilevel factors relevant to the development of HR- breast cancer disproportionately among Black women in the US. We hypothesize that a dynamic interplay among socially patterned psychosocial stressors, physiological & behavioral responses, and genomic pathways contribute to the increased risk of HR- breast cancer among Black women. This work provides a basis for exploring potential alternative pathways linking the lived experience of race to the risk of HR- breast cancer, and suggests new avenues for research and public health action.
Citation: Erin Linnenbringer, Sarah Gehlert, Arline T. Geronimus. Black-White Disparities in Breast Cancer Subtype: The Intersection of Socially Patterned Stress and Genetic Expression[J]. AIMS Public Health, 2017, 4(5): 526-556. doi: 10.3934/publichealth.2017.5.526
| [1] | Sonia Longo, Maurizio Cellura, Francesco Guarino, Vincenzo La Rocca, Giuseppe Maniscalco, Massimo Morale . Embodied energy and environmental impacts of a biomass boiler: a life cycle approach. AIMS Energy, 2015, 3(2): 214-226. doi: 10.3934/energy.2015.2.214 |
| [2] | Javier Sánchez, María Dolores Curt, Marina Sanz, Jesús Fernández . A proposal for pellet production from residual woody biomass in the island of Majorca (Spain). AIMS Energy, 2015, 3(3): 480-504. doi: 10.3934/energy.2015.3.480 |
| [3] | Raili Kajaste, Markku Hurme, Pekka Oinas . Methanol-Managing greenhouse gas emissions in the production chain by optimizing the resource base. AIMS Energy, 2018, 6(6): 1074-1102. doi: 10.3934/energy.2018.6.1074 |
| [4] | Ankita Juneja, Ganti S. Murthy . Evaluating the potential of renewable diesel production from algae cultured on wastewater: techno-economic analysis and life cycle assessment. AIMS Energy, 2017, 5(2): 239-257. doi: 10.3934/energy.2017.2.239 |
| [5] | Badr Ouhammou, Fatima Zohra Gargab, Samir El idrissi kaitouni, Slimane Smouh, Rachid El mrabet, Mohammed Aggour, Abdelmajid Jamil, Tarik Kousksou . Energy saving potential diagnosis for Moroccan university campuses. AIMS Energy, 2023, 11(3): 576-611. doi: 10.3934/energy.2023030 |
| [6] | Mowffaq M. Oreijah, Mohammed Yunus . A parametric analysis to evaluate the performance metrics of power generation system involving Trilateral Flash Cycle using three different working fluids for low grade waste heat. AIMS Energy, 2019, 7(4): 483-492. doi: 10.3934/energy.2019.4.483 |
| [7] | Leonel J. R. Nunes . Potential exportation of wood pellets and torrefied biomass pellets logistics cost analysis: A comparative case study from Portugal. AIMS Energy, 2024, 12(1): 45-61. doi: 10.3934/energy.2024003 |
| [8] | Albert K. Awopone, Ahmed F. Zobaa . Analyses of optimum generation scenarios for sustainable power generation in Ghana. AIMS Energy, 2017, 5(2): 193-208. doi: 10.3934/energy.2017.2.193 |
| [9] | Andrés Feijóo, César López, Emilio Menéndez . A critical analysis of the Spanish electrical system: risks and opportunities by 2050. AIMS Energy, 2015, 3(1): 1-12. doi: 10.3934/energy.2015.1.1 |
| [10] | Otto Andersen, Geoffrey Gilpin, Anders S.G. Andrae . Cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment of the dry etching step in the manufacturing of photovoltaic cells. AIMS Energy, 2014, 2(4): 410-423. doi: 10.3934/energy.2014.4.410 |
Hormone receptor negative (HR-) breast cancer subtypes are etiologically distinct from the more common, less aggressive, and more treatable form of estrogen receptor positive (ER+) breast cancer. Numerous population-based studies have found that, in the United States, Black women are 2 to 3 times more likely to develop HR- breast cancer than White women. Much of the existing research on racial disparities in breast cancer subtype has focused on identifying predisposing genetic factors associated with African ancestry. This approach fails to acknowledge that racial stratification shapes a wide range of environmental and social exposures over the life course. Human stress genomics considers the role of individual stress perceptions on gene expression. Yet, the role of structurally rooted biopsychosocial processes that may be activated by the social patterning of stressors in an historically unequal society, whether perceived by individual black women or not, could also impact cellular physiology and gene expression patterns relevant to HR- breast cancer etiology. Using the weathering hypothesis as our conceptual framework, we develop a structural perspective for examining racial disparities in breast cancer subtypes, integrating important findings from the stress biology, breast cancer epidemiology, and health disparities literatures. After integrating key findings from these largely independent literatures, we develop a theoretically and empirically guided framework for assessing potential multilevel factors relevant to the development of HR- breast cancer disproportionately among Black women in the US. We hypothesize that a dynamic interplay among socially patterned psychosocial stressors, physiological & behavioral responses, and genomic pathways contribute to the increased risk of HR- breast cancer among Black women. This work provides a basis for exploring potential alternative pathways linking the lived experience of race to the risk of HR- breast cancer, and suggests new avenues for research and public health action.
The optical scattering phenomena have been widely applied on the conventional optics or optoelectronic devices, such as general solid state lightings, photovoltaic panel, smart windows, and displays [1,2,3,4,5]. Normally, conventional light scattering layer is consisted of high-index nano- or micro- particles on the surface or inside the polymer media, which act as a random optical interaction media of different composites with different refractive indexes [1,2,4]. Resulting from changes of light path through a medium which contains over two different materials, the collective rays from those light scattering films provide the uniform angular distribution in both optical power and luminescent spectrum [2,6]. Recently, an alternative optical scattering layer based on the porous structure has been studied from many research groups; these porous layers utilize the index contrast between the media material and the air void [7,8,9]. Compared with the conventional light scattering layers, the porous scattering layer can have advantages in terms of enhanced uniformity of power distribution and color stability, because air voids do not have in-situ absorption and the index contrast between an air void and a media material is relatively high. Moreover, a porous polymer layer has attracted lots of interest due to rising demand for manufacturing cost reduction. Koh et al. reported the porous polymer scattering layer via high index contrast between polyimide (Kapton with n ~ 1.7) and air voids (n ~ 1.0) [10]. In this research, using a simple coating process and the immersion precipitation method, uniform and scalable porous scattering films were prepared and introduced to OLEDs. We also have reported that porous polyimide scattering layers without any frustrating laminating process, where a proper choice of a polar aprotic solvent during immersion pore-generation process allowed us to prepare porous micro-structures with uniform pore-size and controlled pore-shape [11]. Although there have been reported various benefits and potential significance of porous polymer scattering layers, but only few theoretical approach has been performed to account their porous micro-structures with their optical scattering characteristics.
The present study explores a novel and original method to realize fine control or tuning of the optical scattering characteristic of porous polyimide film for the first time. To prepare porous polyimide layers, we utilized immersion precipitation method from the coated poly amic acid layer. The optical scattering properties can be controlled by adjusting contents of polar aprotic solvent in polar protic non-solvent bath during the pore-generation process. In particular, we focused on the impact of generated micro-structure of air voids in the porous polyimide layers to their optical scattering characteristics. In addition, by introducing Mie scattering theory and Scalar surface scattering theory, a systematic approach has been performed to explain the influence of the micro-structures inside the prepared porous polymer layer.
Fabricating a poly imide (PI) film can be done from two kinds of synthetic routes: (ⅰ) the thermal imidization process after coating the corresponding poly amic acid (PAA) precursor layer, (ⅱ) the evaporation of solvents from the directly-coated poly imide layer. In this research the porous PI film was made from the imidization process with coated PAA layer, because the solution of PAA precursor has good compatibility with the immersion precipitation method [11,12,13]. To prepare PAA precursor for the porous colorless PI film, we started from dissolving 4, 4'-oxydiphthalic anhydride (>98% TCI Korea, Figure 1a) and 2, 2-bis[4-(4-aminophenoxy)phenyl] hexafluoropropane (>98% TCI Korea, Figure 1b) in a polar aprotic solvent, N, N-dimethylacetamide (DMAc, 99.8% anhydrous Alfa Aesar). Then, both solutions were mixed at a molar ratio of 1:1 and kept the mixture solution stirring for 24 hours in an N2-filled glove box to prevent the moisture quenching. The synthesized yellowish PAA precursor (Figure 1c) solution was diluted to 3.5 wt% using DMAc and kept in glove box before the following coating process. Before coating the PAA solution, thin zinc oxide (ZnO) layers as an adhesion-promoting layer was coated onto the glass substrates; these layers were converted from Zn acetate (Alfa Aesar) in ethanolamine (Sigma-Aldrich) by baking a coated sample at 200 ℃ on a hot plate for 1 hour in air ambient [14]. This 5-nm-thickness ZnO buffer enhances the coating uniformity and prevents the porous PAA precursor from floating in the non-solvent bath during the immersion precipitation process. The PAA layer was spin-coated at 1000 rpm for 30 s on a ZnO-coated glass substrate and then submerged into non-solvent bath for 2 min; where the clear coated PAA layer turned into the diffuse porous PAA film. To control the micro-structure inside the porous PAA layer, we changed the contents of DMAc solvent in the Deionized water (DIW) bath at 0 vol%, 16 vol%, 32 vol%, and 48 vol%. After blowing out the remaining solvents, the prepared porous PAAs on glass substrates were placed in a convection oven at 170 ℃ for 30 min to dry resultant DMAc solvent. Finally, the porous PAA layers were changed into porous PI layers (Figure 1d) through thermal imidization reaction by putting substrates on a 310 ℃ hot plate for 5 min.
Figure 1. The chemical structures of (a) 4, 4'-oxydiphthalic anhydride; (b) 2, 2-bis[4-(4-aminophenoxy)phenyl] hexafluoropropane as the starting materials; (c) the synthesized poly amic acid precursor; and (d) the colorless polyimide from the thermal imidization process of c.The cross sectional SEM images and the surface roughness values for generated porous PI films were analyzed through the SEM(SU8230, Hitachi) and AFM(Park-XE15, Park Systems) measurements, respectively. The optical properties of the prepared porous PI layers were measured using a spectrophotometer with an integrating sphere (CM-3700d, Konica, Minolta) and a UV-Vis spectrometer (Cary 5000, Agilent).
As previously reported, the micro-structure of pores in porous polymer layers determines their optical or mechanical properties [7,8,9]. In this work, the immersion precipitation method was utilized to make the porous polymer film. For the systematic study regarding the influence of generated micro-structure of air voids in the porous polyimide (PI) layers on the optical scattering properties, we first controlled the pore-generation process by changing the condition of coagulation bath. Through the immersion precipitation process using deionized water (DIW) baths with different contents of N, N-dimethylacetamide (DMAc), different micro-structures were generated. The images in Figure 2 represent cross sectional SEM images of porous polyimide films through pore-generation in different coagulation bath. As can be seen in Figure 2, the resultant pore structure shows big difference depending on the composition of coagulation bath. With the increased DMAc solvent content in the DIW non-solvent bath, the number and size of the air voids were reduced and the cellular shape started to be dominant. Similar with our previous reports, the sample from only DIW coagulation bath has various sizes of pores from few hundred nano-meters to micro-meters (Figure 2a), and the total thickness of porous layer was measured around 7 µm. However, for the sample with DMAc solvent of 16 vol%, 32 vol%, and 48 vol% in DIW bath, the thickness was 5.5 µm, 4.0 µm, and 3.5 µm. The thickness-decrease in samples with various DMAc contents comes from the reduction of amount of air voids inside. As the contents of DMAc in DIW bath increased, the pore-size decreased to below a few hundred nano-meters. From the analysis of cross sectional SEM images, one may conclude that the generated pore-structure of porous PI layers was controlled from the contents of DMAc solvent in the DIW bath.
Figure 2. Cross sectional SEM images of porous polyimide films prepared through the immersion precipitation method using water bath with different contents of N, N-dimethylacetamide (DMAc) of (a) 0 vol%, (b) 16 vol%, (c) 32 vol%, and (d) 48 vol%. Insets are the corresponding top-down SEM images.To check the influence of the generated pore-structure in porous PI layers on their surface roughness, AFM images were taken and compared. As shown in Figure 3, the surface roughness can also be distinguished depending on the composition of coagulation bath during pore-generation process. In the sample with only DIW bath, a flat surface with an average roughness of 3.1 nm and the peak-to-valley roughness of 37 nm were obtained (Figure 3a). And the measured values of the average roughness (the peak-to-valley roughness) were 45 nm (316 nm), 56 nm (451 nm) and 98 nm (722 nm) for the 16 vol%-, 32 vol%- and 48 vol%-porous PI samples, respectively. From the surface roughness of porous PI layers, the generated micro-structure at the surface can also be tuned by the coagulation bath conditions.
Figure 3. Measured AFM images of porous polyimide films prepared through the immersion precipitation method using water bath with different contents of N, N-dimethylacetamide (DMAc) of (a) 0 vol%, (b) 16 vol%, (c) 32 vol%, and (d) 48 vol%, where the scan size was fixed at 5 µm × 5 µm.The difference of micro-structure between the prepared porous PIs can be explained by the pore-generation mechanism depending on the condition of coagulation bath. Based on the previous report, the addition of solvent to a coagulation bath during the immersion precipitation method can affect the exchange rates of the DMAc solvent in the coated poly amic acid (PAA) layer and the mixed non-solvent in the coagulation bath [11,12,13]. The higher concentration of solvent in DIW bath provided the lower inflow of DIW non-solvent into the coated PAA layer. Resulting from the slow exchange rate, the mixed PAA layer can stay longer in metastable region [15]. During the first period right after coated PAA layer immersion, the initial film thickness hardly decreases. However, the PAA polymer concentration near the interfacial boundary increases strongly at the moment of contact between the polymer solution and the mixed bath [16,17]. Resulting from the sudden increase of polymer concentration, there are two possible phase separation routes; a spinodal decomposition and a nucleation and growth. In DIW bath, the interfacial boundary separated into a polymer-rich and a polymer-poor phases via a spinodal decomposition due to the fast exchange rate [15,17]. The inflow of DIW non-solvent beneath the interfacial skin layer mainly happens through a polymer-poor region rather than a polymer-rich region. Thus, the phase separation inside the coated PAA layer can show the formation of channeling morphology through PAA-poor phases by successive spinodal decompositions [15]. From this reason, the porous PI films with a large pore-size and a flat surface was generated after the pore-generation in DIW bath. However, based on SEM images in Figure 2, it can be estimated that the dominant phase separation shifted from a spinodal decomposition to a nucleation and growth in coagulation bath with high solvent content. Due to the slow exchange rate of mixed non-solvent, membrane can be formed through the metastable region. Resulting from the continuous exchange until the onset of a phase separation, the region of highly concentrated PAA solution beneath the interface increases considerably [15,16,17]. From this reason, the PAA polymer concentration of this intermediate layer is high, and the phase separation occurs from a nucleation and growth. Consequently, the chance for the formation of channeling morphology is small and the porosity induced from this mechanism could be relatively low. Also, the rough surface of the generated porous layer can be explained because the intermediate layer can influence the mass transport behavior, resulting in the higher chance to form a porous structure at the interface between the bath and the coated layer [15].
To confirm the influence of the generated pore-structure of the prepared porous PI layers on their optical properties, we performed the optical scattering measurement for porous samples with different contents of DMAc solvent in DIW non-solvent bath. First, total (TT (λ)) and diffuse transmittance spectra (TD (λ)) were obtained using a spectrophotometer with an integrating sphere (Figure 4a, b). TT (l)s had a slight difference depending on the condition of coagulation bath, where the average total transmittance (TT, avg) values were 77%, 81%, 83% and 84% for samples with DMAc solvent of 0 vol%, 16 vol%, 32 vol%, and 48 vol%, respectively. However, the diffuse transmittance varied noticeably; average diffuse transmittance (TD, avg) values were 68%, 62%, 52% and 45% for 0 vol%, 16 vol%, 32 vol%, and 48 vol%- porous PI films, respectively. For the optical scattering evaluation, the optical haze value which is defined as TD (λ)/TT (λ) is used. In Figure 4c, the calculated haze spectra also showed big differences between various porous polyimide layers, depending on the contents of DMAc. Although a porous PI from water had an average haze value of 0.88, the other calculated values were 0.77, 0.62 and 0.53 for the samples with 16 vol%, 32 vol%, and 48 vol%, respectively. In Figure 4d, one can easily notice that the order of optical clearance for a porous PI sample with different content of DMAc solvent was consistent with the trend in measured optical haze values. Based on these results, we can say that the optical scattering characteristic of a porous PI film can be controlled by changing the content of DMAc solvent in DIW non-solvent bath during the immersion precipitation process.
Figure 4. (a) measured total transmittance, (b) measured diffuse transmission, and (c) calculated haze spectra for the prepared porous polyimide scattering films on glass substrates using water bath with different contents of N, N-dimethylacetamide (DMAc) of 0 vol% (rectangular), 16 vol% (rhombus), 32 vol% (triangle), and 48 vol% (circle), (d) pictures of prepared porous scattering films on glass.In the porous polymer materials, the light scattering happens at the interface between air and polymer matrix, basically. Then the scattering interface can exist not only at air voids inside the polymer media but also at the surface between polymer and ambient air. However, many previous researchers only focused on the roll of pores in the matrix, because the resultant surface was so flat enough to ignore the influence of the surface scattering [7,8,9,11]. And porous layer has been considered from the view point of stereology, as a two-phase random mixture of media material and air void [8,9]. Although those approaches have been introduced to understand their specific optical behaviors such as scattering elements depending on the shape of void or on the polarization of light, the demand on the simple but straightforward mechanism of optical scattering phenomena has increased for the practical application of the porous optical film. In this study, we correlated the resultant optical scattering characteristic with the micro-structure of a porous polymer layer, from the systematic analysis of both optical properties and micro-structures. To explain how the incident light scatters through the generated porous polymer layer, we proposed three scattering mechanisms illustrated in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Schematic images of proposed optical scattering mechanisms in a porous polymer layer: (a) light scattering happens only inside pore-structure, (b) light scattering happens both inside pore-structure and at the rough surface, and (c) light scattering happens only at the rough surface.As shown in previous section, the controls during pore-generation by immersion precipitation method accompanied with the change in the generated micro-structure of porous polymer films. At the condition with fast exchange rate, there were lots of air voids with large size over few micro-meter although the surface roughness was low. On the other hand, the number and size of the pores were reduced and the surface roughness was increased, when the contents of DMAc in DIW bath increased. To analyze the light scattering of particles, Mie approximation has been known to be appropriate [18]. In Mie scattering theory, the power of light scattering is mainly governed by the size of particles. One can easily know that optical haze values in Figure 4c well matched to the estimated trend of light scattering by Mie scattering theory. The 0 vol%-sample had optical haze values of 0.88 because of light scattering at lots of air voids with size over 5 µm (Figure 5a).
However, it has to be noticed that the 48 vol%-sample still showed optical haze value of 0.53, in spite of a few pores were below 100 nm (see SEM images in Figure 2d). We stressed that the origin of optical haze of 48 vol%-sample mainly came from the light scattering at the rough surface (Figure 5c). When the light propagates through the interface between polymer material and air, the trace of rays can be influenced by the surface roughness. For a rough surface, Scalar surface scattering theory is known to be appropriate to check the influence of surface roughness on the optical scattering [19]. Based on Scalar surface scattering, the diffuse transmittance (TD) can be accounted from the following equation:
| TD(λ)≅TT(λ)×(1−exp[−(2πσr|npolyimidecosθ0−naircosθ1|/λeff)2]) | (1) |
where TT is the total transmittance, σr is the surface roughness, and q0 and θ1 are the angle of incidence and refraction of the specular beam. In Scalar scattering, light-scattering at the interfaces can be separated into a specular and a diffuse part. If the specular part is treated coherently throughout the structure similar with the measurement setup in Figure 4 (θ0 equals to 0), one can easily check the influence of other parameters on the optical haze defined as TD (λ)/TT (λ). As wavelength increases, the value of optical haze decreases. And the higher value of refractive index (npolyimide) can introduce higher chance of optical scattering. However, the σr is the most significant parameter in surface scattering, because the variation of σr can be highest. From the Eq 1, the higher values of surface roughness make the higher values of optical haze. Based on our proposed light scattering mechanism, the optical haze values in 16 vol%- and 32 vol%-samples could be accounted from the light scattering both inside pore-structure and at the rough surface. The net power of light scattering could be expressed by the sum of Mie scattering and the surface scattering. In addition, Mie scattering at air voids inside porous layer had more effects on the total amount of light scattering than the surface scattering at the rough surface.
This study investigated the systematic approach to explain the correlation between the generated micro-structure of a porous polymer layer and its optical scattering property. By changing the contents of DMAc solvent in water coagulation bath, the fine control of pore generation process using the immersion precipitation was possible. At the same time, the corresponding micro-structure of air voids in the resultant porous PI layer as well as its optical scattering characteristic can be also controlled. Then, we proposed the light scattering mechanism for a porous polymer film, which consists of air-voids inside the polymer media and the rough surface at the ambient interface. In addition, Mie scattering theory and Scalar surface scattering theory were introduced to account the light scattering inside pore structure and at the rough surface, respectively. Based on our systematic approach, it can be said that the net power of light scattering was the sum of Mie scattering and the surface scattering. In addition, Mie scattering influenced more on the total amount of light scattering more than the surface scattering. We expect that the work presented here will likely lay the foundation for fully understanding the scattering nature of porous polymer layer, which can be used to the conventional optics or optoelectronic devices
This study was conducted with the support of the Korea Institute of Industrial Technology, as "Development of the flexible luminescence-battery sheet based on high oxygen/moisture barrier films for the luminescent smart packaging (KITECH JA-18-0040)".
The authors declare there are no conflicts of interest in this paper.
| [1] |
Anderson WF, Rosenberg PS, Prat A, et al. (2014) How many etiological subtypes of breast cancer: Two, three, four, or more? J Natl Cancer Inst 106: dju165. doi: 10.1093/jnci/dju165
|
| [2] |
Sims AH, Howell A, Howell SJ, et al. (2007) Origins of breast cancer subtypes and therapeutic implications. Nat Clin Pract Oncol 4: 516-525. doi: 10.1038/ncponc0908
|
| [3] | Paquet ER, Hallett MT (2014) Absolute assignment of breast cancer intrinsic molecular subtype. J Natl Cancer Inst 107: 357. |
| [4] |
Perou CM, Sorlie T, Eisen MB, et al. (2000) Molecular portraits of human breast tumours. Nature 406: 747-752. doi: 10.1038/35021093
|
| [5] |
Sorlie T, Tibshirani R, Parker J, et al. (2003) Repeated observation of breast tumor subtypes in independent gene expression data sets. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 100: 8418-8423. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0932692100
|
| [6] |
Amend K, Hicks D, Ambrosone CB (2006) Breast cancer in African-American women: differences in tumor biology from European-American women. Cancer Res 66: 8327-8330. doi: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-06-1927
|
| [7] | Howlader N, Altekruse SF, Li CI, et al. (2014) US incidence of breast cancer subtypes defined by joint hormone receptor and HER2 Status. J Natl Cancer Inst 106: dju055. |
| [8] |
Newman LA (2014) Breast cancer disparities: high-risk breast cancer and African ancestry. Surg Oncol Clin N Am 23: 579-592. doi: 10.1016/j.soc.2014.03.014
|
| [9] |
Dietze EC, Sistrunk C, Miranda-Carboni G, et al. (2015) Triple-negative breast cancer in African-American women: disparities versus biology. Nat Rev Cancer 15: 248-254. doi: 10.1038/nrc3896
|
| [10] | Gapstur SM, Dupuis J, Gann P, et al. (1996) Hormone receptor status of breast tumors in black, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic white women. An analysis of 13,239 cases. Cancer 77: 1465-1471. |
| [11] |
Hausauer AK, Keegan TH, Chang ET, et al. (2007) Recent breast cancer trends among Asian/Pacific Islander, Hispanic, and African-American women in the US: changes by tumor subtype. Breast Cancer Res 9: R90. doi: 10.1186/bcr1839
|
| [12] |
Joslyn SA (2002) Hormone receptors in breast cancer: racial differences in distribution and survival. Breast Cancer Res Treat 73: 45-59. doi: 10.1023/A:1015220420400
|
| [13] |
Tarone RE, Chu KC (2002) The greater impact of menopause on ER- than ER+ breast cancer incidence: a possible explanation (United States). Cancer Causes Control 13: 7-14. doi: 10.1023/A:1013960609008
|
| [14] |
Dunnwald LK, Rossing MA, Li CI (2007) Hormone receptor status, tumor characteristics, and prognosis: a prospective cohort of breast cancer patients. Breast Cancer Res 9: R6. doi: 10.1186/bcr1639
|
| [15] |
Bauer KR, Brown M, Cress RD, et al. (2007) Descriptive analysis of estrogen receptor (ER)negative, progesterone receptor (PR)-negative, and HER2-negative invasive breast cancer, the so-called triple-negative phenotype - A population-based study from the California Cancer Registry. Cancer 109: 1721-1728. doi: 10.1002/cncr.22618
|
| [16] |
Sineshaw HM, Gaudet M, Ward EM, et al. (2014) Association of race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and breast cancer subtypes in the National Cancer Data Base (2010-2011). Breast Cancer Res Treat 145: 753-763. doi: 10.1007/s10549-014-2976-9
|
| [17] | Kohler BA, Sherman RL, Howlader N, et al. (2015) Annual Report to the Nation on the Status of Cancer, 1975-2011, Featuring Incidence of Breast Cancer Subtypes by Race/Ethnicity, Poverty, and State. J Natl Cancer Inst 107: djv048. |
| [18] |
Morris GJ, Naidu S, Topham AK, et al. (2007) Differences in breast carcinoma characteristics in newly diagnosed African-American and Caucasian patients: a single-institution compilation compared with the National Cancer Institute's Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results database. Cancer 110: 876-884. doi: 10.1002/cncr.22836
|
| [19] |
Hayanga AJ, Newman LA (2007) Investigating the phenotypes and genotypes of breast cancer in women with African ancestry: The need for more genetic epidemiology. Surg Clin North Am 87: 551-568. doi: 10.1016/j.suc.2007.01.003
|
| [20] |
Newman LA (2015) Disparities in breast cancer and African ancestry: A global perspective. Breast J 21: 133-139. doi: 10.1111/tbj.12369
|
| [21] |
King MC, Marks JH, Mandell JB (2003) Breast and ovarian cancer risks due to inherited mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2. Science 302: 643-646. doi: 10.1126/science.1088759
|
| [22] |
Churpek JE, Walsh T, Zheng Y, et al. (2015) Inherited predisposition to breast cancer among African American women. Breast Cancer Res Treat 149: 31-39. doi: 10.1007/s10549-014-3195-0
|
| [23] |
Slavich GM, Cole SW (2013) The Emerging Field of Human Social Genomics. Clin Psychol Sci 1: 331-348. doi: 10.1177/2167702613478594
|
| [24] | Geronimus AT (1992) The weathering hypothesis and the health of African-American women and infants: evidence and speculations. Ethn Dis 2: 207-221. |
| [25] | Geronimus AT (1994) The weathering hypothesis and the health of African American women and infants: Implications for reporducitve strategies and policy analysis. In: Sen G, Snow RC, editors. Power and Decision: The Social Control of Reproduction. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. |
| [26] | Geronimus AT (2001) Understanding and eliminating racial inequalities in women's health in the United States: the role of the weathering conceptual framework. J Am Med Womens Assoc 56: 133-136, 149-150. |
| [27] | Geronimus AT, Thompson JP (2004) To denigrate, ignore, or disrupt: The health impact of policy-induced breakdown of urban African American communites of support. Du Bois Rev 1: 247-279. |
| [28] |
Geronimus AT, Hicken M, Keene D, et al. (2006) "Weathering" and age patterns of allostatic load scores among blacks and whites in the United States. Am J Public Health 96: 826-833. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2004.060749
|
| [29] | Geronimus AT, Bound J, Keene D, et al. (2007) Black-white differences in age trajectories of hypertension prevalence among adult women and men, 1999-2002. Ethn Dis 17: 40-48. |
| [30] | Geronimus AT, Hicken MT, Pearson JA, et al. (2010) Do US Black Women Experience Stress-Related Accelerated Biological Aging?: A Novel Theory and First Population-Based Test of Black-White Differences in Telomere Length. Hum Nat 21: 19-38. |
| [31] |
Keene DE, Geronimus AT (2011) Community-based support among African American public housing residents. J Urban Health 88: 41-53. doi: 10.1007/s11524-010-9511-z
|
| [32] |
Geronimus AT (2013) Deep integration: Letting the epigenome out of the bottle without losing sight of the structural origins of population Health. Am J Public Health 103: S56-S63. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2013.301380
|
| [33] |
Williams DR, Mohammed SA, Shields AE (2016) Understanding and effectively addressing breast cancer in African American women: Unpacking the social context. Cancer 122: 2138-2149. doi: 10.1002/cncr.29935
|
| [34] |
Trivers K, Lund M, Porter P, et al. (2009) The epidemiology of triple-negative breast cancer, including race. Cancer Causes Control 20: 1071-1082. doi: 10.1007/s10552-009-9331-1
|
| [35] |
Kwan ML, Kushi LH, Weltzien E, et al. (2009) Epidemiology of breast cancer subtypes in two prospective cohort studies of breast cancer survivors. Breast Cancer Res 11: R31. doi: 10.1186/bcr2261
|
| [36] |
Millikan RC, Newman B, Tse CK, et al. (2008) Epidemiology of basal-like breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat 109: 123-139. doi: 10.1007/s10549-007-9632-6
|
| [37] |
Parise CA, Bauer KR, Brown MM, et al. (2009) Breast cancer subtypes as defined by the estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR), and the human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) among women with invasive breast cancer in California, 1999-2004. Breast J 15: 593-602. doi: 10.1111/j.1524-4741.2009.00822.x
|
| [38] |
Carey LA, Perou CM, Livasy CA, et al. (2006) Race, breast cancer subtypes, and survival in the Carolina Breast Cancer Study. JAMA 295: 2492-2502. doi: 10.1001/jama.295.21.2492
|
| [39] |
Setiawan VW, Monroe KR, Wilkens LR, et al. (2009) Breast cancer risk factors defined by estrogen and progesterone receptor status: the multiethnic cohort study. Am J Epidemiol 169: 1251-1259. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwp036
|
| [40] |
Gehlert S, Sohmer D, Sacks T, et al. (2008) Targeting health disparities: a model linking upstream determinants to downstream interventions. Health Aff (Millwood) 27: 339-349. doi: 10.1377/hlthaff.27.2.339
|
| [41] |
Warnecke RB, Oh A, Breen N, et al. (2008) Approaching health disparities from a population perspective: the National Institutes of Health Centers for population health and health disparities. Am J Public Health 98: 1608-1615. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2006.102525
|
| [42] |
Pearlin LI, Schieman S, Fazio EM, et al. (2005) Stress, health, and the life course: Some conceptual perspectives. J Health Soc Behav 46: 205-219. doi: 10.1177/002214650504600206
|
| [43] |
Hill TD, Ross CE, Angel RJ (2005) Neighborhood disorder, psychophysiological distress, and health. J Health Soc Behav 46: 170-186. doi: 10.1177/002214650504600204
|
| [44] |
Wheaton B (1985) Models for the stress-buffering functions of coping resources. J Health Soc Behav 26: 352-364. doi: 10.2307/2136658
|
| [45] |
Petticrew M, Fraser JM, Regan MF (1999) Adverse life-events and risk of breast cancer: A meta-analysis. Br J Health Psychol 4: 1-17. doi: 10.1348/135910799168434
|
| [46] |
Chida Y, Hamer M, Wardle J, et al. (2008) Do stress-related psychosocial factors contribute to cancer incidence and survival? Nat Clin Pract Oncol 5: 466-475. doi: 10.1038/ncponc1134
|
| [47] |
Holmes TH, Rahe RH (1967) The social readjustment rating scale. Psychosom Med 11: 213-218. doi: 10.1016/0022-3999(67)90010-4
|
| [48] |
Brown JS, Meadows SO, Elder GH, Jr. (2007) Race-ethnic inequality and psychological distress: Depressive symptoms from adolescence to young adulthood. Dev Psychol 43: 1295-1311. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1295
|
| [49] |
Geronimus AT, Pearson JA, Linnenbringer E, et al. (2015) Race-ethnicity, poverty, urban stressors, and telomere length in a detroit community-based sample. J Health Soc Behav 56: 199-224. doi: 10.1177/0022146515582100
|
| [50] | Cheang A, Cooper CL (1985) Psychosocial factors in breast cancer. Stress Med 1: 11-24. |
| [51] |
Sorlie T (2004) Molecular portraits of breast cancer: tumour subtypes as distinct disease entities. Eur J Cancer 40: 2667-2675. doi: 10.1016/j.ejca.2004.08.021
|
| [52] |
Chrousos GP, Torpy DJ, Gold PW (1998) Interactions between the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and the female reproductive system: clinical implications. Ann Intern Med 129: 229-240. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-129-3-199808010-00012
|
| [53] |
Spiegel D, Butler LD, Giese-Davis J, et al. (2007) Effects of supportive-expressive group therapy on survival of patients with metastatic breast cancer: a randomized prospective trial. Cancer 110: 1130-1138. doi: 10.1002/cncr.22890
|
| [54] |
Michael YL, Carlson NE, Chlebowski RT, et al. (2009) Influence of stressors on breast cancer incidence in the Women's Health Initiative. Health Psychol 28: 137-146. doi: 10.1037/a0012982
|
| [55] |
Melhem-Bertrandt A, Conzen S (2010) The relationship between psychosocial stressors and breast cancer biology. Current Breast Cancer Reports 2: 130-137. doi: 10.1007/s12609-010-0021-5
|
| [56] |
Cacioppo JT, Hawkley LC (2003) Social isolation and health, with an emphasis on underlying mechanisms. Perspect Biol Med 46: S39-52. doi: 10.1353/pbm.2003.0049
|
| [57] | McClintock MK, Conzen SD, Gehlert S, et al. (2005) Mammary cancer and social interactions: identifying multiple environments that regulate gene expression throughout the life span. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 60 1: 32-41. |
| [58] |
Williams JB, Pang D, Delgado B, et al. (2009) A model of gene-environment interaction reveals altered mammary gland gene expression and increased tumor growth following social isolation. Cancer Prev Res 2: 850-861. doi: 10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-08-0238
|
| [59] |
Hasen NS, O'Leary KA, Auger AP, et al. (2010) Social isolation reduces mammary development, tumor incidence, and expression of epigenetic regulators in wild-type and p53-heterozygotic mice. Cancer Prev Res (Phila Pa) 3: 620-629. doi: 10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-09-0225
|
| [60] |
Williams DR, Neighbors HW, Jackson JS (2003) Racial/ethnic discrimination and health: findings from community studies. Am J Public Health 93: 200-208. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.93.2.200
|
| [61] |
Taylor TR, Williams CD, Makambi KH, et al. (2007) Racial discrimination and breast cancer incidence in US black women - the black women's health study. Am J Epidemiol 166: 46-54. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwm056
|
| [62] |
Krieger N, Jahn JL, Waterman PD (2017) Jim Crow and estrogen-receptor-negative breast cancer: US-born black and white non-Hispanic women, 1992-2012. Cancer Causes Control 28: 49-59. doi: 10.1007/s10552-016-0834-2
|
| [63] |
Williams DR, Collins C (2001) Racial residential segregation: a fundamental cause of racial disparities in health. Public Health Rep 116: 404-416. doi: 10.1016/S0033-3549(04)50068-7
|
| [64] |
Schulz A, Williams DR, Israel BA, et al. (2002) Racial and spatial relations as fundamental determinants of health in Detroit. Milbank Q 80: 677-707. doi: 10.1111/1468-0009.00028
|
| [65] | Massey DS, Denton NA (1993) American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. |
| [66] | Barrett RE, Cho YI, Weaver KE, et al. (2008) Neighborhood change and distant metastasis at diagnosis of breast cancer. Ann Epidemiol 18: 43-47. |
| [67] |
Sampson RJ, Morenoff JD, Earls F (1999) Beyond social capital: Spatial dynamics of collective efficacy for children. Am Sociol Rev 64: 633-660. doi: 10.2307/2657367
|
| [68] |
Warner E, Gomez S (2010) Impact of Neighborhood Racial Composition and Metropolitan Residential Segregation on Disparities in Breast Cancer Stage at Diagnosis and Survival Between Black and White Women in California. J Community Health 35: 398-408. doi: 10.1007/s10900-010-9265-2
|
| [69] | Linnenbringer E (2014) Social constructions, biological implications: A structural examination of racial disparities in breast cancer subtype. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. |
| [70] | Linnenbringer E, Geronimus AT (2014) Neighborhood SES, racial concentration, and hormone receptor status among california women diagnosed with breast cancer population association of america annual meeting. Boston, MA. |
| [71] | Sampson RJ, Morenoff JD, Gannon-Rowley T (2002) Assessing "neighborhood effects": Social processes and new directions in research. Ann RevSociol 28: 443-478. |
| [72] |
Bernard P, Charafeddine R, Frohlich KL, et al. (2007) Health inequalities and place: A theoretical conception of neighbourhood. Soc Sci Med 65: 1839-1852. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.05.037
|
| [73] |
Cummins S, Curtis S, Diez-Roux AV, et al. (2007) Understanding and representing 'place' in health research: A relational approach. Soc Sci Med 65: 1825-1838. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.05.036
|
| [74] |
Macintyre S, Ellaway A, Cummins S (2002) Place effects on health: how can we conceptualise, operationalise and measure them? Soc Sci Med 55: 125-139. doi: 10.1016/S0277-9536(01)00214-3
|
| [75] |
Pickett KE, Wilkinson RG (2008) People like us: ethnic group density effects on health. Ethn Health 13: 321-334. doi: 10.1080/13557850701882928
|
| [76] | Becares L, Nazroo J, Stafford M (2009) The buffering effects of ethnic density on experienced racism and health. Health Place 15: 670-678. |
| [77] | Bécares L, Shaw R, Nazroo J, et al. (2012) Ethnic density effects on physical morbidity, mortality, and health behaviors: A systematic review of the literature. Am J Public Health 102: e33-e66. |
| [78] |
Keene D, Bader M, Ailshire J (2013) Length of residence and social integration: The contingent effects of neighborhood poverty. Health Place 21: 171-178. doi: 10.1016/j.healthplace.2013.02.002
|
| [79] | Small ML (2004) Villa Victoria: The transformation of coail capital in a Boston Barrio. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. |
| [80] |
Tach LM (2009) More than bricks and mortar: Neighborhood frames, social processes, and the mixed-income redevelopment of a public housing project. City Commun 8: 269-299. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-6040.2009.01289.x
|
| [81] |
Pearlin LI (1989) The sociological study of stress. J Health Soc Behav 30: 241-256. doi: 10.2307/2136956
|
| [82] |
Taylor SE, Repetti RL, Seeman T (1997) Health psychology: What is an unhealthy environment and how does it get under the skin? Ann Rev Psychol 48: 411-447. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.48.1.411
|
| [83] | Massey DS (2004) Segregation and stratification: A biosocial perspective. Du Bois Review 1: 7-25. |
| [84] | Jackson JS, Knight KM (2006) Race and self-regulatory health behaviors: The role of the stress response and the HPA axis in physical and mental health disparities. In: Schaie KW, Carstensen LL, editors. Social Structures, Aging, and Self-Regulation in the Elderly. New York: Springer: 189-207. |
| [85] | Cole SW, Hawkley LC, Arevalo JM, et al. (2007) Social regulation of gene expression in human leukocytes. Genome Biol 8(9): R189. |
| [86] |
Traustadóttir T, Bosch PR, Matt KS (2005) The HPA axis response to stress in women: effects of aging and fitness. Psychoneuroendocrinology 30: 392-402. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2004.11.002
|
| [87] |
McEwen BS (1998) Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators. N Engl J Med 338: 171-179. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199801153380307
|
| [88] |
McEwen BS, Wingfield JC (2003) The concept of allostasis in biology and biomedicine. Horm Behav 43: 2-15. doi: 10.1016/S0018-506X(02)00024-7
|
| [89] |
Parente V, Hale L, Palermo T (2013) Association between breast cancer and allostatic load by race: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999-2008. Psycho-Oncology 22: 621-628. doi: 10.1002/pon.3044
|
| [90] |
Morland K, Wing S, Diez Roux A, et al. (2002) Neighborhood characteristics associated with the location of food stores and food service places. Am J Prev Med 22: 23-29. doi: 10.1016/S0749-3797(01)00403-2
|
| [91] |
Moore LV, Diez Roux AV (2006) Associations of neighborhood characteristics with the location and type of food stores. Am J Public Health 96: 325-331. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2004.058040
|
| [92] | Zenk SN, Schulz AJ, Israel BA, et al. (2006) Fruit and vegetable access differs by community racial composition and socioeconomic position in Detroit, Michigan. Ethn Dis 16: 275-280. |
| [93] | Baker EA, Schootman M, Barnidge E, et al. (2006) The role of race and poverty in access to foods that enable individuals to adhere to dietary guidelines. Prev Chronic Dis 3: A76. |
| [94] |
Jackson JS, Knight KM, Rafferty JA (2010) Race and unhealthy behaviors: chronic stress, the HPA axis, and physical and mental health disparities over the life course. Am J Public Health 100: 933-939. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2008.143446
|
| [95] |
Zhang SM, Hankinson SE, Hunter DJ, et al. (2005) Folate intake and risk of breast cancer characterized by hormone receptor status. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 14: 2004-2008. doi: 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-05-0083
|
| [96] |
Boggs DA, Palmer JR, Wise LA, et al. (2010) Fruit and vegetable intake in relation to risk of breast cancer in the black women's health study. Am J Epidemiol 172: 1268-1279. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwq293
|
| [97] |
Esteller M (2008) Epigenetics in cancer. N Engl J Med 358: 1148-1159. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra072067
|
| [98] |
Gronbaek K, Hother C, Jones PA (2007) Epigenetic changes in cancer. Apmis 115: 1039-1059. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0463.2007.apm_636.xml.x
|
| [99] | Ahuja N, Li Q, Mohan AL, et al. (1998) Aging and DNA methylation in colorectal mucosa and cancer. Cancer Res 58: 5489-5494. |
| [100] | Issa JP (2000) CpG-island methylation in aging and cancer. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 249: 101-118. |
| [101] |
Szyf M, McGowan P, Meaney MJ (2008) The social environment and the epigenome. Environ Mol Mutagen 49: 46-60. doi: 10.1002/em.20357
|
| [102] |
Fraga MF, Ballestar E, Paz MF, et al. (2005) Epigenetic differences arise during the lifetime of monozygotic twins. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 102: 10604-10609. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0500398102
|
| [103] |
Jovanovic J, Rønneberg JA, Tost J, et al. (2010) The epigenetics of breast cancer. Mol Oncol 4: 242-254. doi: 10.1016/j.molonc.2010.04.002
|
| [104] | Weigel RJ, deConinck EC (1993) Transcriptional control of estrogen receptor in estrogen receptor-negative breast carcinoma. Cancer Res 53: 3472-3474. |
| [105] | Ferguson AT, Lapidus RG, Baylin SB, et al. (1995) Demethylation of the estrogen receptor gene in estrogen receptor-negative breast cancer cells can reactivate estrogen receptor gene expression. Cancer Res 55: 2279-2283. |
| [106] | Wei M, Xu J, Dignam J, et al. (2007) Estrogen receptor alpha, BRCA1, and FANCF promoter methylation occur in distinct subsets of sporadic breast cancers. Breast Cancer Res Treat 111: 113-120. |
| [107] |
Gaudet MM, Campan M, Figueroa JD, et al. (2009) DNA hypermethylation of ESR1 and PGR in breast cancer: pathologic and epidemiologic associations. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 18: 3036-3043. doi: 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-09-0678
|
| [108] |
Feng W, Shen L, Wen S, et al. (2007) Correlation between CpG methylation profiles and hormone receptor status in breast cancers. Breast Cancer Res 9: R57. doi: 10.1186/bcr1762
|
| [109] |
Widschwendter M, Siegmund KD, Muller HM, et al. (2004) Association of breast cancer DNA methylation profiles with hormone receptor status and response to tamoxifen. Cancer Res 64: 3807-3813. doi: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-03-3852
|
| [110] |
Christensen BC, Kelsey KT, Zheng S, et al. (2010) Breast Cancer DNA Methylation Profiles Are Associated with Tumor Size and Alcohol and Folate Intake. PLoS Genet 6: e1001043. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1001043
|
| [111] |
Cole SW (2010) Elevating the perspective on human stress genomics. Psychoneuroendocrinology 35: 955-962. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.06.008
|
| 1. | Seong Hyun Jang, Young Joon Han, Sang Yoon Lee, Geonho Lee, Jae Woong Jung, Kwan Hyun Cho, Jun Choi, Investigation of the Chemical Structure of Ultra-Thin Polyimide Substrate for the Xenon Flash Lamp Lift-off Technology, 2021, 13, 2073-4360, 546, 10.3390/polym13040546 | |
| 2. | Ji-Hyeon Kim, Junfei Ma, Seunghun Lee, Sungjin Jo, Chang Su Kim, Effect of Ultraviolet–Ozone Treatment on the Properties and Antibacterial Activity of Zinc Oxide Sol-Gel Film, 2019, 12, 1996-1944, 2422, 10.3390/ma12152422 | |
| 3. | Danping Wang, Erwei Cheng, Zhaoming Qu, Yingying Wang, Qingguo Wang, The enhancement in microstructure, optical and electromagnetic shielding properties of Al-doped Ag thin films by annealing treatment, 2024, 54, 24680230, 105172, 10.1016/j.surfin.2024.105172 |
Figures(1) / Tables(1)
Erin Linnenbringer, Sarah Gehlert, Arline T. Geronimus. Black-White Disparities in Breast Cancer Subtype: The Intersection of Socially Patterned Stress and Genetic Expression[J]. AIMS Public Health, 2017, 4(5): 526-556. doi: 10.3934/publichealth.2017.5.526
DownLoad: 
