Although the hippocampus is processing temporal and spatial information in particular context, the encoding rule creating memory is completely unknown. To examine the mechanism, we trained rats on an inhibitory avoidance (IA) task, a hippocampus-dependent rapid one-trial contextual learning paradigm. By combining Herpes virus-mediated in vivo gene delivery with in vitro patch-clamp recordings, I reported contextual learning drives GluR1-containing AMPA receptors into CA3-CA1 synapses. The molecular event is required for contextual memory, since bilateral expression of delivery blocker in CA1 successfully blocked IA learning. Moreover, I found a logarithmic correlation between the number of delivery blocking cells and learning performance. Considering that one all-or-none device can process 1-bit of data per clock (Nobert Wiener 1961), the logarithmic correlation may provides evidence that CA1 neurons transmit essential data of contextual information. Further, I recently reported critical role of acetylcholine as an intrinsic trigger of learning-dependent synaptic plasticity. IA training induced ACh release in CA1 that strengthened not only AMPA receptor-mediated excitatory synapses, but also GABAA receptor-mediated inhibitory synapses on each CA1 neuron. More importantly, IA-trained rats showed individually different excitatory and inhibitory synaptic inputs with wide variation on each CA1 neuron. Here I propose a new hypothesis that the diversity of synaptic inputs on CA1 neurons may depict cell-specific outputs processing experienced episodes after training.
Citation: Dai Mitsushima. Contextual Learning Requires Functional Diversity at Excitatory and Inhibitory Synapses onto CA1 Pyramidal Neurons[J]. AIMS Neuroscience, 2015, 2(1): 7-17. doi: 10.3934/Neuroscience.2015.1.7
| [1] | Sara Arciniegas Ruiz, Eliav Tikochinsky, Vardit Rubovitch, Chaim G Pick, Bernard Attali . Contextual fear response is modulated by M-type K+ channels and is associated with subtle structural changes of the axon initial segment in hippocampal GABAergic neurons. AIMS Neuroscience, 2023, 10(1): 33-51. doi: 10.3934/Neuroscience.2023003 |
| [2] | Abdulrahman Alhamyani, Prabhat R Napit, Haider Ali, Mostafa MH Ibrahim, Karen P Briski . Ventrolateral ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus GABA neuron adaptation to recurring Hypoglycemia correlates with up-regulated 5′-AMP-activated protein kinase activity. AIMS Neuroscience, 2021, 8(4): 510-525. doi: 10.3934/Neuroscience.2021027 |
| [3] | Chris Cadonic, Benedict C. Albensi . Oscillations and NMDA Receptors: Their Interplay Create Memories. AIMS Neuroscience, 2014, 1(1): 52-64. doi: 10.3934/Neuroscience.2014.1.52 |
| [4] | Ubaid Ansari, Jimmy Wen, Burhaan Syed, Dawnica Nadora, Romteen Sedighi, Denise Nadora, Vincent Chen, Forshing Lui . Analyzing the potential of neuronal pentraxin 2 as a biomarker in neurological disorders: A literature review. AIMS Neuroscience, 2024, 11(4): 505-519. doi: 10.3934/Neuroscience.2024031 |
| [5] | Eduardo Mercado III . Relating Cortical Wave Dynamics to Learning and Remembering. AIMS Neuroscience, 2014, 1(3): 185-209. doi: 10.3934/Neuroscience.2014.3.185 |
| [6] | Nao Fukuwada, Miki Kanno, Satomi Yoshida, Kenjiro Seki . Gαq protein signaling in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis regulate the lipopolysaccharide-induced despair-like behavior in mice. AIMS Neuroscience, 2020, 7(4): 438-458. doi: 10.3934/Neuroscience.2020027 |
| [7] | Fatemeh Aghighi, Mahmoud Salami, Sayyed Alireza Talaei . Effect of postnatal environmental enrichment on LTP induction in the CA1 area of hippocampus of prenatally traffic noise-stressed female rats. AIMS Neuroscience, 2023, 10(4): 269-281. doi: 10.3934/Neuroscience.2023021 |
| [8] | Nour Kenaan, Zuheir Alshehabi . A review on recent advances in Alzheimer's disease: The role of synaptic plasticity. AIMS Neuroscience, 2025, 12(2): 75-94. doi: 10.3934/Neuroscience.2025006 |
| [9] | Anastasios A. Mirisis, Anamaria Alexandrescu, Thomas J. Carew, Ashley M. Kopec . The Contribution of Spatial and Temporal Molecular Networks in the Induction of Long-term Memory and Its Underlying Synaptic Plasticity. AIMS Neuroscience, 2016, 3(3): 356-384. doi: 10.3934/Neuroscience.2016.3.356 |
| [10] | Nicholas J. D. Wright . A review of the direct targets of the cannabinoids cannabidiol, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, N-arachidonoylethanolamine and 2-arachidonoylglycerol. AIMS Neuroscience, 2024, 11(2): 144-165. doi: 10.3934/Neuroscience.2024009 |
Although the hippocampus is processing temporal and spatial information in particular context, the encoding rule creating memory is completely unknown. To examine the mechanism, we trained rats on an inhibitory avoidance (IA) task, a hippocampus-dependent rapid one-trial contextual learning paradigm. By combining Herpes virus-mediated in vivo gene delivery with in vitro patch-clamp recordings, I reported contextual learning drives GluR1-containing AMPA receptors into CA3-CA1 synapses. The molecular event is required for contextual memory, since bilateral expression of delivery blocker in CA1 successfully blocked IA learning. Moreover, I found a logarithmic correlation between the number of delivery blocking cells and learning performance. Considering that one all-or-none device can process 1-bit of data per clock (Nobert Wiener 1961), the logarithmic correlation may provides evidence that CA1 neurons transmit essential data of contextual information. Further, I recently reported critical role of acetylcholine as an intrinsic trigger of learning-dependent synaptic plasticity. IA training induced ACh release in CA1 that strengthened not only AMPA receptor-mediated excitatory synapses, but also GABAA receptor-mediated inhibitory synapses on each CA1 neuron. More importantly, IA-trained rats showed individually different excitatory and inhibitory synaptic inputs with wide variation on each CA1 neuron. Here I propose a new hypothesis that the diversity of synaptic inputs on CA1 neurons may depict cell-specific outputs processing experienced episodes after training.
The hippocampus plays a central role to form new episodic memory in various species including humans [1]. The hippocampal neurons seem to process variety of information,such as spatial location [2],temporal information [3],and emotional state [4] within specific episodes [5]. However,the critical mechanism how to sustain a piece of specific memory or what associates the memory fragment each other is still largely unknown.
Since selective blockade of long-term potentiation(LTP)induction by NMDA receptor antagonist impairs hippocampal learning [6],LTP has been considered as a cellular model of hippocampal memory [7]. In 2006,in vivo field EPSC recording study showed that hippocampal learning induces LTP in CA1 region of hippocampus [8]. Further,we revealed that learning-dependent synaptic delivery of AMPA receptors into the CA3-CA1 synapses is required for hippocampal learning [9]. Since there is no tetanus electrode in brain,endogenous trigger and /or the mechanism inducing the learning-dependent LTP were unknown.
I hypothesized acetylcholine(ACh)as an endogenous trigger of LTP,since the ACh release in the hippocampus increases during learning or exploration. Moreover,without electrode for tetanus stimulation,bath treatment of ACh agonist not only induces specific bursts [10] but also forms LTP in CA1 region of hippocampal slices [11]. Based on the hypothesis,I found that i)cholinergic trigger drives learning-dependent synaptic plasticity at excitatory and inhibitory synapses,and ii)learning requires the diversity of synaptic inputs in CA1 pyramidal neurons [12].
ACh seems to be necessary to strengthen the information-specific tagged CA1 synapses [13],depicted by hippocampal-cortical networks [14].
A number of studies suggest that ACh plays an important role in orchestrating majorhippocampal functions(Figure 1). In behavioural studies,ACh release increases during learning [15,16,17] and is positively correlated with learning performance [18,19]. Bilateral injections of scopolamine into the dorsal hippocampus impair spatial learning ability [20],suggesting that muscarinic ACh receptors mediate the formation of spatial memory. At the network level,ACh generates a theta rhythm [21] that modulates the induction of long-term potentiation(LTP)in hippocampal CA1 neurons [22]. Studies exploring a genetic deficiency of muscarinic ACh receptors(M1 or M2)further show the impairment of LTP in the CA1 region [23,24]. At the cellular level,both pyramidal and non-pyramidal neurons in the hippocampal CA1 area receive direct cholinergic afferents mediated by muscarinic receptors [25,26,27]. In vitro studies showed that bath application of carbachol,a cholinergic agonist,induces LTP in CA1 pyramidal neurons without electrical stimulus,suggesting that ACh in the hippocampus plays a principal role in the synaptic plasticity of the CA1 pyramidal neurons [11]. Furthermore,a recent study revealed an intracellular mechanism of ACh: focal activation of muscarinic ACh receptors in one CA1 pyramidal neuron induces Ca2+ release from inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-sensitive stores to induce LTP [28].
Figure 1. Schematic illustration of septo-hippocampal cholinergic neurons in rats. Exposure to serious episode induces ACh release in the hippocampus that activates hippocampal functions(Mitsushima et al,2008). I know,you remember where you were and what you were doing when serious events occur.
ACh in the hippocampus not only enhances plasticity at CA1 synapses,but also contribute to adult neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus,that is required for contextual memory [29]. Neurotoxic lesions of forebrain cholinergic neurons or long-term scopolamine treatment decreases the number of newborn cells in the dentate gyrus [30,31].
Although it is well established that cholinergic inputs from the medial septum modulate learning and memory,evidence for the cholinergic regulation of learning-induced synaptic plasticity is lacking. To investigate learning-induced synaptic modification in the hippocampus,we used the IA task(Figure 2). In this paradigm,rats are allowed to cross from an illuminated box to a dark box where an electric foot shock is delivered. Thus,rats learn to avoid the dark box and stay in the lighted one,which they would normally not prefer [8,9]. The tendency to avoid the dark box therefore indicates the acquisition of contextual memories. The rats avoided entering the dark box when it was associated with a mild electric shock(IA-trained),but not those given foot shock without any contextual experience(unpaired),or those allowed to simply explore the experimental cage(walk-through). Untrained control rats were kept in their home cages and were not exposed to the IA apparatus.
Figure 2.(a)Schema of inhibitory avoidance(IA)task. On the day of IA training,rats were placed in the light side of the box. When rats moved into the dark side box,we closed the door and applied electrical foot shock(1.6 mA)for 2 sec. The rats were returned to the home cage soon after the shock.(b)Even one training,rats well remember the episode,spending much longer time in the light box after training [12].
Cholinergic neurons within the basal forebrain provide the major projection to the neocortex and hippocampus [32]. Cortical regions receive cholinergic inputs mainly from the nucleus basalis magnocellularis(NBM)or the diagonal b and of Broca,whereas the hippocampus receivescholinergic inputs mostly from the medial septum and horizontal limb of the diagonal b and of
Broca [32]. Because the cholinergic projections are necessary to maintain learning and
memory [33,34],we hypothesized that in vivo monitoring of ACh release in the hippocampus is necessary to elucidate learning function. To measure ACh release,we have performed in vivo microdialysis studies in freely moving male rats. Briefly,a microdialysis probe with a semi-permeable membrane(0.5 mm in length)was inserted into a specific brain area via a surgically pre-implanted guide cannula. We perfused the inside of the membrane with artificial cerebrospinal fluid,and assayed ACh in dialysates using a high-performance liquid chromatography system. As a result,we observed long-lasting(≈60 min)ACh release in CA1 in IA-trained rats but not in untrained,unpaired,or walk-through controls(Figure 3)[12].
Figure 3.In vivoACh levels in the rat hippocampal CA1 region under different learning conditions.(a)Locations of the in vivo microdialysis probe in CA1.(b)Extracellular ACh levels increased significantly during IA training,and remained high for 60 min. In the unpaired or walk-through control animals,the ACh level increased,but only transiently [12]. Squares indicate the timing of the behavioral task. Error bars indicate ± sem.
Although it is well established that cholinergic inputs from the medial septum modulate learning and memory,evidence for the cholinergic regulation of learning-induced synaptic plasticity is lacking. By combining HSV-mediated in vivo gene delivery with in vitro patch-clamp recordings,we reported that contextual learning drives GluA1-containing AMPA receptors into hippocampal CA3-CA1 synapses. Double IA-training using two different contexts further drove AMPA receptors into the CA3-CA1 synapses [35]. More importantly,the synaptic delivery is required for contextual learning,since bilateral expression of AMPA receptor delivery blocker(MPR-DD)successfully impaired the contextual learning [9].
To further examine the learning-dependent synaptic plasticity,we recorded miniature EPSC(mEPSC at -60 mV) and miniature IPSC(mIPSC at 0 mV)from the same CA1 neuron under the presence of TTX(0.5 µM). Although control rats(untrained,unpaired,or walk through)show small mEPSC and mIPSC amplitudes,IA trained rats show significantly higher mEPSC and mIPSC amplitudes with much wider variation(Figure 4). These results suggest that each CA1 neuron has different excitatory or inhibitory synaptic inputs with wide electrophysiological variation.
Figure 4.A hour after the training,we prepared acute brain slices to analyze synaptic inputs in each CA1 neuron using patch clamp method. Each dot represents mean miniature EPSC and miniature IPSC responses in each CA1 neuron. The results suggest that IA training enhanced electrophysiological diversity of excitatory and inhibitory synapses. Muscarinic M1 ACh receptor antagonist blocked the training-dependent diversity of mEPSCs. In contrast,nicotinic a7 ACh receptor antagonist blocked the diversity of mIPSCs [12](. Red crosses represent means ± sem.).
Since I hypothesized that ACh is an intrinsic trigger of the synaptic plasticity,cholinergic receptor antagonist was microinjected into the CA1 neurons 15 min before the contextual learning. Microinjection of muscarinic M1 receptor antagonist(pirenzepine)into the CA1 successfully blocked the learning-dependent increase in mEPSC amplitude but not mIPSC amplitude. Conversely,microinjection of nicotinic a7receptor antagonist(methyllycaconitine)successfully blocked the learning-dependent increase in mIPSC amplitude but not mEPSC amplitude. In behaving rats,bilateral microinjections of pirenzepine or methyllycaconitine into CA1 successfully block the learning.
These results suggest that i)cholinergic trigger drives learning-dependent synaptic plasticity at excitatory and inhibitory synapses and ii)learning requires the diversity of synaptic inputs in CA1 pyramidal neurons [12]. Based on the results,I hypothesized that the diversity probably depicts cell-specific outputs processing experienced episodes after training(Figure 5). The mechanism of synaptic tagging at inhibitory synapses should be revealed in future.
Figure 5.Current hypothesis of learning & memory. Note that each CA1 neuron expresses barcode-like output after learning. Acetylcholine triggers learning-dependent synaptic plasticity of excitatory and inhibitory synapses,inducing electrophysiological diversity of excitatory and inhibitory synapses. To process experienced episodes,the diversity probably depends on information-specific-tagged CA1 synapses depicted by hippocampal-cortical networks.
We recently monitored in vivo multiple-unit spike activity of CA1 neurons before,during,and after exposure to a strong episode using male rats. Although spontaneous firing rate was low in habituated home cage,spontaneous high frequency firing suddenly observed for seconds during or soon after the strong episode. Then,minutes after the episode,short term but high frequency ripple-like(on/off)synchronized firing was clearly observed and sustained [36]. These observations provide crucial evidence supporting our hypothesis of learning and memory(Figure 5).
To determine a possible location of contextual memory,we made acute brain slices in four different CA1 areas(dorsal right,dorsal left,ventral right and ventral left)in untrained or IA-trained rats. We found that IA training induced synaptic plasticity in both side of dorsal hippocampus,but not in ventral hippocampus [37]. Non-stationary noise-analysis techniques further revealed that IA training significantly increased the number of open channels in dorsal hippocampus,but not in ventral hippocampus. These results suggest that learning-dependent synaptic plasticity occur in dorsal hippocampus bilaterally,but not in ventral hippocampus [38]. Considering our previous study to block AMPA receptor delivery [9],encoded contextual information seems to locate in both side of dorsal hippocampus.
To determine whether the encoding of context or retrieval induces synaptic change,we made acute brain slices in 6 different timing after IA training. We found that i)the encoding of context rather than retrieval induces both excitatory and inhibitory synaptic change and ii)the encoding quickly induces the plastic change within 10 min after the training [39].
We recently reported the developmental change in hippocampal ACh levels and contextual learning. Extracellular ACh levels in the dorsal hippocampus are low in juveniles,but increase significantly in adults. Simultaneous monitoring of ACh levels and spontaneous locomotor activity further demonstrated the development of ACh release. Although both juvenile and adult rats exhibited significant correlations between ACh levels and spontaneous activity,juveniles exhibited much more spontaneous activity than adults when they showed equivalent ACh levels. Similarly,low contextual learning performance in juveniles significantly increased,demonstrating a developmental trajectory of hippocampal function. In this report,we further revealed a developmental relationship between contextual learning and ACh level in the hippocampus [Freezing(sec)= 1171 ACh(pmol/20 min)+ 36].
More importantly,the ACh release in juveniles seems to be important to development of hippocampus and learning,since long-term treatment of scopolamine after weaning specifically impaired contextual learning without changing pain sensitivity,emotional state,and spontaneous activity. The findings,together with previous reports,lead to the hypothesis that juveniles require more spontaneous activity than adults to activate hippocampal functions. Our findings support the notion that every boy and girl requires sufficient spontaneous play in parks or nature to promote brain activity as well as physical activity [40].
In humans,aging seems to attenuate the ACh levels. Moreover,a reduction in ACh synthesis is known as a common feature of Alzheimer's disease [41,42,43]. The disease is the most common form of dementia [44] and is frequently accompanied by insomnia,poor concentration,and day night confusion [45,46]. The centrally active acetylcholinesterase inhibitor(donepezil)is effective in not only mild,but also moderate to severe cases [47,48],proving the importance of endogenous ACh in humans. We found neonatal sexual differentiation of the septo-hippocampal cholinergic system,suggesting sex-specific clinical strategies for Alzheimer’s disease [3]. Underst and ing the further detailed mechanism of ACh-triggered learning-dependent plasticity is essential for real improvements in therapy.
I declare no conflicts of interest in this paper.
| [1] |
Scoville WB, Milner B (1957) Loss of recent memory after bilateral hippocampal lesions. J Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 20: 11-21. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.20.1.11
|
| [2] |
Wills TJ, Cacucci F, Burgess N, et al. (2010) Development of the hippocampal cognitive map in preweanling rats. Science 328: 1573-1576. doi: 10.1126/science.1188224
|
| [3] | Mitsushima D, Takase K, Funabashi T, et al. (2009) Gonadal steroids maintain 24-h acetylcholine release in the hippocampus: organizational and activational effects in behaving rats. J Neurosci 29:3808–3815. |
| [4] |
Chen G, Wang LP, Tsien JZ (2009) Neural population-level memory traces in the mouse hippocampus. PLoS ONE 4: e8256. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0008256
|
| [5] |
Gelbard-Sagiv H, Mukamel R, Harel M, et al. (2008) Internally generated reactivation of single neurons in human hippocampus during free recall. Science 322: 96-101. doi: 10.1126/science.1164685
|
| [6] | Morris RGM, Anderson E, Lynch GS, et al. (1986) Selective impairment of learning and blockade of long-term potentiation by an N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist, AP5. Nature319: 774-776. |
| [7] |
Bliss TVP, Làmo T (1973) Long-lasting potentiation of synaptic transmission in the dentate area of the anaesthetized rabbit following stimulation of the perforant path. J Physiol 232:331-356. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1973.sp010273
|
| [8] |
Whitlock JR, Heynen AJ, Shuler MG, B et al. (2006) Learning induces long-term potentiation in the hippocampus. Science 313: 1093-1097. doi: 10.1126/science.1128134
|
| [9] |
Mitsushima D, Ishihara K, Sano A, et al. (2011) Contextual learning requires synaptic AMPA receptor delivery in the hippocampus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108: 12503-12508. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1104558108
|
| [10] |
Fisahn A, Pike FG, Buhl EH, et al. (1998) Cholinergic induction of networkoscillations at 40Hz in the hippocampus in vitro. Nature 394: 186-189. doi: 10.1038/28179
|
| [11] |
Auerbach JM, Segal M (1996) Muscarinic receptors mediating depression and long-term potentiation in rat hippocampus. J Physiol 492: 479-493. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1996.sp021323
|
| [12] | Mitsushima D, Sano A, Takahashi T (2013) A cholinergic trigger drives learning-induced plasticity at hippocampal synapses. Nat Commun 4:2760. |
| [13] |
Okada D, Ozawa F, Inokuchi K (2009) Input-specific spine entry of soma-derived Vesl-1S protein conforms to synaptic tagging. Science 324: 904-909. doi: 10.1126/science.1171498
|
| [14] |
Lesburguères E, Gobbo OL, Alaux-Cantin S, et al. (2011) Early tagging of cortical networks is required for the formation of enduring associative memory. Science 331: 924-928. doi: 10.1126/science.1196164
|
| [15] |
Ragozzino ME, Unick KE, Gold PE (1996) Hippocampal acetylcholine release during memory testing in rats: augmentation by glucose. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93: 4693-4698. doi: 10.1073/pnas.93.10.4693
|
| [16] |
Stancampiano R, Cocco S, Cugusi C, et al. (1999) Serotonin and acetylcholine release response in the rat hippocampus during a spatial memory task. Neuroscience 89: 1135-1143. doi: 10.1016/S0306-4522(98)00397-2
|
| [17] |
Hironaka N, Tanaka K, Izaki Y, et al. (2001) Memory-related acetylcholine efflux from the rat prefrontal cortex and hippocampus: a microdialysis study. Brain Res 901: 143-150. doi: 10.1016/S0006-8993(01)02338-1
|
| [18] |
Gold PE (2003) Acetylcholine modulation of neural systems involved in learning and memory. Neurobiol Learn Mem 80: 194-210. doi: 10.1016/j.nlm.2003.07.003
|
| [19] |
Parent MB, Baxter MG (2004) Septohippocampal acetylcholine: involved in but not necessary for learning and memory? Learn Mem 11: 9-20. doi: 10.1101/lm.69104
|
| [20] |
Herrera-Morales W, Mar I, Serrano B, et al. (2007) Activation of hippocampal postsynaptic muscarinic receptors is involved in long-term spatial memory formation. Eur J Neurosci 25:1581-1588. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05391.x
|
| [21] |
Lee MG, Chrobak JJ, Sik A, et al. (1994) Hippocampal theta activity following selective lesion of the septal cholinergic system. Neuroscience 62: 1033-1047. doi: 10.1016/0306-4522(94)90341-7
|
| [22] | Hyman JM, Wyble BP, Goyal V, et al. (2003) Stimulation in hippocampal region CA1 in behaving rats yields long-term potentiation when delivered to the peak of theta and long-term depression when delivered to the trough. J Neurosci 23: 11725-11731. |
| [23] |
Seeger T, Fedorova I, Zheng F, et al. (2004) M2 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor knock-out mice show deficits in behavioral flexibility, working memory, and hippocampal plasticity. J Neurosci 24: 10117-10127. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3581-04.2004
|
| [24] |
Shinoe T, Matsui M, Taketo MM, et al. (2005) Modulation of synaptic plasticity by physiological activation of M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in the mouse hippocampus. J Neurosci 25: 11194-11200. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2338-05.2005
|
| [25] |
Cole AE, Nicoll RA (1983) Acetylcholine mediates a slow synaptic potential in hippocampal pyramidal cells. Science 221: 1299-1301. doi: 10.1126/science.6612345
|
| [26] |
Markram H, Segal M (1990) Long-lasting facilitation of excitatory postsynaptic potentials in the rat hippocampus by acetylcholine. J Physiol 427: 381-393. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1990.sp018177
|
| [27] |
Widmer H, Ferrigan L, Davies CH, et al. (2006) Evoked slow muscarinic acetylcholinergic synaptic potentials in rat hippocampal interneurons. Hippocampus 16: 617-628. doi: 10.1002/hipo.20191
|
| [28] |
Fernández de Sevilla D, Núñez A, Borde M, et al. (2008) Cholinergic-mediated IP3-receptor activation induces long-lasting synaptic enhancement in CA1 pyramidal neurons. J Neurosci 28:1469-1478. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2723-07.2008
|
| [29] |
Imayoshi I, Sakamoto M, Ohtsuka T, et al. (2008) Roles of continuous neurogenesis in the structural and functional integrity of the adult forebrain. Nat Neurosci 11: 1153-1161. doi: 10.1038/nn.2185
|
| [30] |
Mohapel P, Leanza G, Kokaia M, et al. (2005) Forebrain acetylcholine regulates adult hippocampal neurogenesis and learning. Neurobiol Aging 26: 939-946. doi: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2004.07.015
|
| [31] |
Kotani S, Yamauchi T, Teramoto T, et al. (2006) Pharmacological evidence of cholinergic involvement in adult hippocampal neurogenesis in rats. Neuroscience 142: 505-514. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.06.035
|
| [32] |
Mesulam MM, Mufson EJ, Wainer BH, Levey AI (1983) Central cholinergic pathways in the rat: an overview based on an alternative nomenclature (Ch1-Ch6). Neuroscience 10: 1185-1201. doi: 10.1016/0306-4522(83)90108-2
|
| [33] |
Perry E, Walker M, Grace J, et al. (1999) Acetylcholine in mind: a neurotransmitter correlate of consciousness? Trend Neurosci 22: 273-280. doi: 10.1016/S0166-2236(98)01361-7
|
| [34] |
Sarter M, Parikh V (2005) Choline transporters, cholinergic transmission and cognition. Nat Neurosci 6: 48-56. doi: 10.1038/nrn1588
|
| [35] | Mitsushima D, Takahashi T (2011) Contextual learning requires synaptic AMPA receptor delivery in the hippocampus: effect of delivery blocking in behaving rats. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Abstr, Synapses: from molecules to circuits & behavior 90. |
| [36] | Taniguchi H, Ishikawa J, Mitsushima D (2014) Real-time change in the firing rate of hippocampal CA1 neurons before, during, and after the exposure to a specific episode. J Physiol Sci 64: S244. |
| [37] | Mizuno J, Mitsushima D (2013) A possible location of contextual memory: CA1 subfield and laterality of learning-dependent synaptic delivery of AMPA receptors. Soc Neurosci Abstr862.12. |
| [38] | Mizuno J, Sakimoto Y, Kida H, et al. (2014) Learning-dependent synaptic plasticity at CA1 synapses: laterality and a possible location of contextual memory in the hippocampus. Soc Neurosci Abstr 754.11. |
| [39] | Sakimoto Y, Mitsushima D (2014) Learning-dependent synaptic diversity in hippocampal CA1 neurons: encoding of context but not retrieval induces rapid plasticity at excitatory and inhibitory synapses. Soc Neurosci Abstr 754.07. |
| [40] | Takase K, Sakimoto Y, Kimura F, et al. (2014) Developmental trajectory of contextual learning and 24-h acetylcholine release in the hippocampus. Sci Rep 4: 3738. |
| [41] |
Coyle JT, Price DL, DeLong MR (1983) Alzheimer's disease: a disorder of cortical cholinergic innervation. Science 219: 1184-1190. doi: 10.1126/science.6338589
|
| [42] |
Ferri CP, Prince M, Brayne C, et al. (2005) Global prevalence of dementia: a Delphi consensus study. Lancet 366: 2112-2117. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67889-0
|
| [43] |
Mount C, Downtown D (2006) Alzheimer disease: progress or profit? Nat Med 12:780-784. doi: 10.1038/nm0706-780
|
| [44] |
Cummings JL (2004) Alzheimer's disease. New Engl J Med, 351: 56-67. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra040223
|
| [45] |
McCurry SM, Logsdon RG, Vitiello MV, et al. (2004) Treatment of sleep and nighttime disturbances in Alzheimer's disease: a behavior management approach. Sleep Med 5: 373-377. doi: 10.1016/j.sleep.2003.11.003
|
| [46] |
Starkstein SE, Jorge R, Mizrahi R, et al. (2005) The construct of minor and major depression in Alzheimer's disease. Am J Psychiatry 162: 2086-2093. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.162.11.2086
|
| [47] |
Petersen RC, Thomas RG, Grundman M, et al. (2005) Vitamin E and donepezil for the treatment of mild cognitive impairment. New Engl J Med 352: 2379-2388. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa050151
|
| [48] |
Winblad B, Kilander L, Eriksson S, et al. (2006) Donepezil in patients with severe Alzheimer’s disease: double-blind, parallel-group, placebo-controlled study. Lancet 367: 1057-1065. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68350-5
|
| [49] | Mitsushima D, Takase K, Funabashi T, et al. (2008) Gonadal steroid hormones maintain the stress-induced acetylcholine release in the hippocampus: simultaneous measurements of the extracellular acetylcholine and serum corticosterone levels in the same subjects. Endocrinology149: 802-811. |
| 1. | Eduardo Mercado III, Learning-Related Synaptic Reconfiguration in Hippocampal Networks: Memory Storage or Waveguide Tuning?, 2015, 2, 2373-7972, 28, 10.3934/Neuroscience.2015.1.28 |
Figures(5)
Dai Mitsushima. Contextual Learning Requires Functional Diversity at Excitatory and Inhibitory Synapses onto CA1 Pyramidal Neurons[J]. AIMS Neuroscience, 2015, 2(1): 7-17. doi: 10.3934/Neuroscience.2015.1.7
DownLoad: 