Observing children's outdoor loose parts play, fundamental movement skills, and physical activity in after-school programs through a behavioral mapping approach

Nila Joshi; Son Truong; Janet Loebach; Daniel Rainham; Becky Feicht; Michelle Stone; Nila Joshi; Son Truong; Janet Loebach; Daniel Rainham; Becky Feicht; Michelle Stone

doi:10.3934/publichealth.2026027

AIMS Public Health

2026, Volume 13, Issue 2: 513-545. doi: 10.3934/publichealth.2026027

Previous Article Next Article

Research article

Observing children's outdoor loose parts play, fundamental movement skills, and physical activity in after-school programs through a behavioral mapping approach

1.
School of Health and Human Performance, Dalhousie University, Nova Scotia, Canada
2.
Cornell College of Human Ecology, Cornell University, New York, United States of America
3.
Centre for Planetary Health and Sustainable Care, Nova Scotia, Canada

Received: 08 January 2026 Revised: 19 March 2026 Accepted: 27 March 2026 Published: 20 April 2026

Background
Outdoor Loose Parts Play (OLPP) has been recognized for its potential to support children's fundamental movement skills (FMS) and physical activity (PA). However, few researchers have explored its association in after-school settings or observed how different outdoor spaces may influence these outcomes.
Purpose
We observed patterns of children's FMS and PA across two after-school programs with varied outdoor spaces in Nova Scotia, Canada, following an OLPP intervention. We also explored how types of loose parts and fixed features were associated with specific FMS and PA intensities.
Methods
Using a multi-site case study approach, behavioral mapping was conducted with children aged 4–12 years pre/post a six-week OLPP intervention. Movements (FMS) were recorded using the Movement Observations during Play (MOP) measure, and PA intensities were recorded using the Children's Activity Rating Scale (CARS). Proportions of FMS, PA intensities, and environmental interactions (LP and fixed features) pre-post were explored using descriptive analyses and McNemar's test (p < 0.05). Logistic regression examined how interaction with LP and fixed features was associated with the likelihood of observing different movements and PA intensities.
Results
Pre-post patterns differed by site. At Site A (larger, suburban, natural outdoor space, pre-existing OLPP), a higher proportion of stability skills were observed, while PA intensity remained unchanged. At Site B (smaller, urban, manufactured outdoor space, limited prior OLPP), a higher proportion of object control skills and moderate-intensity PA were observed. Across both sites, loose manufactured and loose natural materials were more likely to include object control skills, while fixed natural features were more likely to include stability skills.
Conclusion
OLPP was associated with site-specific patterns. Findings suggest that LP types and fixed feature affordances may shape opportunities for different movements and PA intensities. These findings can inform educators and policymakers in designing outdoor play spaces that optimize children's movement opportunities.
- fundamental movement skills,
- physical activity,
- loose parts,
- outdoor play,
- behavioral mapping,
- play spaces,
- affordances
Citation: Nila Joshi, Son Truong, Janet Loebach, Daniel Rainham, Becky Feicht, Michelle Stone. Observing children's outdoor loose parts play, fundamental movement skills, and physical activity in after-school programs through a behavioral mapping approach[J]. AIMS Public Health, 2026, 13(2): 513-545. doi: 10.3934/publichealth.2026027

Related Papers:

Abstract

Background

Outdoor Loose Parts Play (OLPP) has been recognized for its potential to support children's fundamental movement skills (FMS) and physical activity (PA). However, few researchers have explored its association in after-school settings or observed how different outdoor spaces may influence these outcomes.

Purpose

We observed patterns of children's FMS and PA across two after-school programs with varied outdoor spaces in Nova Scotia, Canada, following an OLPP intervention. We also explored how types of loose parts and fixed features were associated with specific FMS and PA intensities.

Methods

Using a multi-site case study approach, behavioral mapping was conducted with children aged 4–12 years pre/post a six-week OLPP intervention. Movements (FMS) were recorded using the Movement Observations during Play (MOP) measure, and PA intensities were recorded using the Children's Activity Rating Scale (CARS). Proportions of FMS, PA intensities, and environmental interactions (LP and fixed features) pre-post were explored using descriptive analyses and McNemar's test (p < 0.05). Logistic regression examined how interaction with LP and fixed features was associated with the likelihood of observing different movements and PA intensities.

Results

Pre-post patterns differed by site. At Site A (larger, suburban, natural outdoor space, pre-existing OLPP), a higher proportion of stability skills were observed, while PA intensity remained unchanged. At Site B (smaller, urban, manufactured outdoor space, limited prior OLPP), a higher proportion of object control skills and moderate-intensity PA were observed. Across both sites, loose manufactured and loose natural materials were more likely to include object control skills, while fixed natural features were more likely to include stability skills.

Conclusion

OLPP was associated with site-specific patterns. Findings suggest that LP types and fixed feature affordances may shape opportunities for different movements and PA intensities. These findings can inform educators and policymakers in designing outdoor play spaces that optimize children's movement opportunities.

Abbreviations

FMS

Fundamental Movement Skills

Physical Activity

OLPP

Outdoor Loose Parts Play

Behavioural Mapping

PLEY

Physical Literacy in Early Years

BAPP

Before and After Pre-Primary

MOP

Movement Observations during Play

CARS

Children's Activity Rating Scale

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the participating sites and the children for their involvement in this study. We are grateful to the PLEY School team—Julie Campbell, Kaitlyn Mooney, and Jane Cawley—for their invaluable assistance with data collection. We also extend our sincere appreciation to Adina Cox for providing training and sharing their expertise in behavioural mapping, which greatly strengthened the methodological rigour of this study.

Authors' contributions

N.J. conceived the study, collected, organized, and analyzed the data, interpreted the findings, and drafted the manuscript. S.T., J.L., D.R., B.F., and M.S. provided feedback on the study design, analysis, interpretation of the findings, and critical revision of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest in this paper.

References

[1]	Goodway JD, Ozmun JC, Gallahue DL (2019) Understanding motor development: Infants, children, adolescents, adults. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
[2]	Lubans DR, Morgan PJ, Cliff DP, et al. (2010) Fundamental movement skills in children and adolescents: review of associated health benefits. Sports Med 40: 1019-1035. https://doi.org/10.2165/11536850-000000000-00000
[3]	Johnstone A, Hughes AR, Martin A, et al. (2018) Utilising active play interventions to promote physical activity and improve fundamental movement skills in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health 18: 789. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5687-z
[4]	Stodden DF, Goodway JD, Langendorfer SJ, et al. (2008) A developmental perspective on the role of motor skill competence in physical activity: an emergent relationship. Quest 60: 290-306. https://doi.org/10.1080/00336297.2008.10483582
[5]	International Physical Literacy AssociationCanada's Physical Literacy Consensus Statement (2015). [cited 2024 August 15]. Available from: https://physicalliteracy.ca/physical-literacy/consensus-statement/
[6]	Cairney J, Dudley D, Kwan M, et al. (2019) Physical literacy, physical activity and health: toward an evidence-informed conceptual model. Sports Med 49: 371-383. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-019-01063-3
[7]	Frost JL, Sutterby JA (2017) Outdoor play is essential to whole child development. Young Child 72: 82-85.
[8]	Gil-Madrona P, Martínez-López M, Prieto-Ayuso A, et al. (2019) Contribution of public playgrounds to motor, social, and creative development and obesity reduction in children. Sustainability 11: 3787. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11143787
[9]	Flannigan C, Dietze B (2018) Children, outdoor play, and loose parts. J Child Stud 42: 53-60. https://doi.org/10.18357/jcs.v42i4.18103
[10]	Houser NE, Roach L, Stone M, et al. (2016) Let the children play: scoping review on the implementation and use of loose parts for promoting physical activity participation. AIMS Public Health 3: 781-799. https://doi.org/10.3934/publichealth.2016.4.781
[11]	Nicholson S (1971) How not to cheat children: the theory of loose parts. Landsc Archit 62: 30-34.
[12]	Gibson JL, Cornell M, Gill T (2017) A systematic review of research into the impact of loose parts play on children's cognitive, social and emotional development. School Ment Health 9: 295-309. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9220-9
[13]	Spencer R, Joshi N, Branje K, et al. (2019) Educator perceptions on the benefits and challenges of loose parts play in the outdoor environments of childcare centres. AIMS Public Health 6: 461-76. https://doi.org/10.3934/publichealth.2019.4.461
[14]	Little H, Sweller N (2015) Affordances for risk-taking and physical activity in Australian early childhood education settings. Early Child Educ J 43: 337-345. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-014-0667-0
[15]	Branje K, Stevens D, Hobson H, et al. (2021) Impact of an outdoor loose parts intervention on Nova Scotia preschoolers' fundamental movement skills: a multi-methods randomized controlled trial. AIMS Public Health 9: 194-215. https://doi.org/10.3934/publichealth.2022015
[16]	Caldwell HAT, Spencer RA, Joshi N, et al. (2023) Impact of an outdoor loose parts play intervention on Nova Scotian preschoolers' physical literacy: a mixed-methods randomized controlled trial. BMC Public Health 23: 1126. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-16030-x
[17]	Lambert A, Vlaar J, Herrington S, et al. (2019) What is the relationship between the neighbourhood built environment and time spent in outdoor play? A systematic review. Int J Environ Res Public Health 16: 3840. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16203840
[18]	Wishart L, Cabezas-Benalcázar C, Morrissey AM, et al. (2019) Traditional vs naturalised design: a comparison of affordances and physical activity in two preschool playscapes. Landsc Res 44: 1031-1049. https://doi.org/10.1080/01426397.2018.1551524
[19]	Liao MY, Chen LC, Huang PY (2025) A case study on integrating arts activities with the loose parts in preschool's in-between spaces. Int J Music Educ 43: 54-74. https://doi.org/10.1177/02557614241299055
[20]	Olsen H, Smith B (2017) Sandboxes, loose parts, and playground equipment: a descriptive exploration of outdoor play environments. Early Child Dev Care 187: 1055-1068. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2017.1282928
[21]	Pereira JV, Dionísio J, Lopes F, et al. (2023) Playing at the schoolyard: “the who's, the what's and the how long's” of loose parts. Children 10: 240. https://doi.org/10.3390/children10020240
[22]	Ryan K, Woytovech CJ, Bruya L, et al. (2012) Loose parts: the collaboration process for a school playground. J Kinesiol Wellness 1: 4-13. https://doi.org/10.56980/jkw.v1i1.36
[23]	Simoncini K, Meeuwissen K (2024) ‘Don't hog, share and just let your imagination flow’: lessons from structured and unstructured loose parts play in middle primary school classrooms. Aust Educ Res 52: 703-720. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13384-024-00737-w
[24]	Xavier A, Morrison H, Sulz L (2023) Facilitating loose parts play with elementary school staff: professional development and implementation from the perspective of the facilitator. Phys Educ Sport Pedagogy 30: 252-265. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2023.2214575
[25]	Loebach J, Cox A (2022) Playing in ‘the backyard’: environmental features and conditions of a natural playspace which support diverse outdoor play activities among younger children. Int J Environ Res Public Health 19: 12661. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912661
[26]	Naish C, McCormack GR, Blackstaffe A, et al. (2023) An observational study on play and physical activity associated with a recreational facility-led park-based “loose parts” play intervention during the COVID-19 pandemic. Children 10: 1049. https://doi.org/10.3390/children10061049
[27]	Woods AJ, Probst YC, Norman J, et al. (2022) Correlates of physical activity and sedentary behaviour in children attending before and after school care: a systematic review. BMC Public Health 22: 2364. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-14675-8
[28]	Gibson JJ (1979) The ecological approach to visual perception. Boston (MA): Houghton Mifflin. [cited 2024 August 15]. Available from: https://books.google.com.hk/books/about/The_ecological_approach_to_visual_percep.html?id=V-JOAAAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y
[29]	Morgenthaler T, Lynch H, Loebach J, et al. (2024) Using the theory of affordances to understand environment–play transactions: environmental taxonomy of outdoor play space features—a scoping review. Am J Occup Ther 78: 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606
[30]	Heft H (1988) Affordances of children's environments: a functional approach to environmental description. Child Environ Q 1988: 29-37.
[31]	Kyttä M (2002) Affordances of children's environments in the context of cities, small towns, suburbs and rural villages in Finland and Belarus. J Environ Psychol 22: 109-123. https://doi.org/10.1006/jevp.2001.0249
[32]	Cosco NG, Moore RC, Islam MZ (2010) Behavior mapping: a method for linking preschool physical activity and outdoor design. Med Sci Sports Exerc 42: 513-519. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181cea27a
[33]	Gull C, Bogunovich J, Goldstein SL, et al. (2019) Definitions of loose parts in early childhood outdoor classrooms: a scoping review. Int J Early Child Environ Educ 6: 37-52.
[34]	Nova Scotia Department of Education and Early Childhood DevelopmentThe Nova Scotia Before and After Program: Let's Get Moving program and delivery standards (Schedule A) (2022). [cited 2024 August 15]. Available from: https://www.saint-marys.ca/recreation/before-after-care-program/1995-nova-scotia-bap-delivery-standards-22-23/file.html
[35]	Cox A, Loebach J, Little S (2018) Understanding the nature play milieu: using behavior mapping to investigate children's activities in outdoor play spaces. Child Youth Environ 28: 232. https://doi.org/10.7721/chilyoutenvi.28.2.0232
[36]	Joshi N, Truong S, Loebach J, et al. (2026) Development and piloting of the Movement Observations during Play (MOP) measure. Under review .
[37]	Puhl J, Greaves K, Hoyt M, et al. (1990) Children's Activity Rating Scale (CARS): description and calibration. Res Q Exerc Sport 61: 26-36. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.1990.10607475
[38]	(2024) Esri IncArcGIS Pro [software]. Redlands (CA): Esri.
[39]	(2021) IBM CorpIBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 28.0 [software]. Armonk (NY): IBM Corp.
[40]	Pawlowski CS, Madsen CD, Toftager M, et al. (2023) The role of playgrounds in the development of children's fundamental movement skills: a scoping review. PLoS One 18: e0294296. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0294296
[41]	Storli R, Hagen TL (2010) Affordances in outdoor environments and children's physically active play in pre-school. Eur Early Child Educ Res J 18: 445-456. https://doi.org/10.1080/1350293X.2010.525923
[42]	Lim C, Donovan A, Harper N, et al. (2017) Nature elements and fundamental motor skill development opportunities at five elementary school districts in British Columbia. Int J Environ Res Public Health 14: 1279. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14101279
[43]	Gaekwad JS, Moslehian AS, Roös PB, et al. (2022) A meta-analysis of emotional evidence for the biophilia hypothesis and implications for biophilic design. Front Psychol 13: 750245. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.750245
[44]	Wilson EO, Kellert SR (1993) The biophilia hypothesis. Washington (DC): Island Press.
[45]	Laaksoharju T, Rappe E (2017) Trees as affordances for connectedness to place: a framework to facilitate children's relationship with nature. Urban For Urban Green 28: 150-159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2017.10.004
[46]	Sandseter EBH (2009) Affordances for risky play in preschool: the importance of features in the play environment. Early Child Educ J 36: 439-446. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-009-0307-2
[47]	Coe DP (2020) Means of optimizing physical activity in the preschool environment. Am J Lifestyle Med 14: 16-23. https://doi.org/10.1177/1559827618818419
[48]	Hyndman B, Mahony L (2018) Developing creativity through outdoor physical activities: a qualitative exploration of contrasting school equipment provisions. J Adventure Educ Outdoor Learn 18: 242-256. https://doi.org/10.1080/14729679.2018.1436078
[49]	Sandseter EBH, Storli R, Sando OJ (2022) The dynamic relationship between outdoor environments and children's play. Educ 3–13 50: 97-110. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004279.2020.1833063
[50]	Wick K, Leeger-Aschmann CS, Monn ND, et al. (2017) Interventions to promote fundamental movement skills in childcare and kindergarten: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med 47: 2045-2068. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-017-0723-1
[51]	Hannon JC, Brown BB (2008) Increasing preschoolers' physical activity intensities: an activity-friendly preschool playground intervention. Prev Med 46: 532-536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2008.01.006
[52]	Pate RR, Brown WH, Pfeiffer KA, et al. (2016) An intervention to increase physical activity in children. Am J Prev Med 51: 12-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2015.12.003
[53]	Brink LA, Nigg CR, Lampe SMR, et al. (2010) Influence of schoolyard renovations on children's physical activity: the Learning Landscapes Program. Am J Public Health 100: 1672-1678. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2009.178939
[54]	Dyment JE, Bell AC (2008) Grounds for movement: green school grounds as sites for promoting physical activity. Health Educ Res 23: 952-962. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cym059
[55]	Loebach J, Cox A (2020) Tool for Observing Play Outdoors (TOPO): a new typology for capturing children's play behaviors in outdoor environments. Int J Environ Res Public Health 17: 5611. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155611
[56]	Maxwell LE, Mitchell MR, Evans GW (2008) Effects of play equipment and loose parts on preschool children's outdoor play behavior: an observational study and design intervention. Child Youth Environ 18: 36-63. https://doi.org/10.1353/cye.2008.0025
[57]	Vickerius M, Sandberg A (2006) The significance of play and the environment around play. Early Child Dev Care 176: 207-217. https://doi.org/10.1080/0300443042000319430
[58]	Mahfuzhoh E, Marcillia SR (2024) Importance of children's recess play exploration within school outdoor environment. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci 1301: 012004. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1301/1/012004
[59]	Cosco NG, Moore RC, Smith WR (2014) Childcare outdoor renovation as a built environment health promotion strategy: Evaluating the Preventing Obesity by Design Intervention. Am J Health Promot 28: S27-S32. https://doi.org/10.4278/ajhp.130430-QUAN-208
[60]	Whitehead ME, Durden-Myers EJ, Pot N (2018) The value of fostering physical literacy. J Teach Phys Educ 37: 252-261. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.2018-0139
[61]	Government of Nova ScotiaLet's Get Moving Nova Scotia: An action plan for increasing physical activity in Nova Scotia (2018). [cited 2024 August 15]. Available from: https://novascotia.ca/letsgetmoving/docs/letsgetmoving-en.pdf
[62]	Casey T, Robertson J Loose parts play: a toolkit (2019). [cited 2024 August 15]. Available from: https://inspiringscotland.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Loose-Parts-Play-Toolkit-2019-web.pdf

publichealth-13-02-027-s001.pdf

Reader Comments

Your name:*

Email:*
© 2026 the Author(s), licensee AIMS Press. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)