Influence of nitrogen gas flow rate on the physical properties of corncob activated carbon for lithium-ion capacitor electrodes

Asih Kurniasari; Ariono Verdianto; Yoyok Dwi Setyo Pambudi; Chairul Hudaya; Asih Kurniasari; Ariono Verdianto; Yoyok Dwi Setyo Pambudi; Chairul Hudaya

doi:10.3934/energy.2026011

AIMS Energy

2026, Volume 14, Issue 1: 259-274. doi: 10.3934/energy.2026011

Previous Article Next Article

Research article

Influence of nitrogen gas flow rate on the physical properties of corncob activated carbon for lithium-ion capacitor electrodes

1.
Research Center for Electrical Technology, Research Organization for Energy and Manufacture, National Research and Innovation Agency, Kawasan Sains Terpadu B.J. Habibie Serpong, Tangerang Selatan, 15314, Indonesia
2.
Production Division, PT PLN (Persero) PUSHALRIS–UP2W III, Bandung 40272, Indonesia
3.
Research Center for Nuclear Reactor Technology, Research Organization for Nuclear Energy, National Research and Innovation Agency, Kawasan Sains Terpadu B.J. Habibie Serpong, Tangerang Selatan 15314, Indonesia
4.
Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Depok 16424, Indonesia

Received: 11 November 2025 Revised: 26 January 2026 Accepted: 06 February 2026 Published: 27 February 2026

To address the disadvantages of both lithium-ion batteries (low power density) and supercapacitors (low energy density), lithium-ion capacitors (LICs) were created as a hybrid energy storage system. In this study, the biomass-derived activated carbon from corncob (CACN) was prepared by adopting physical and chemical activation processes under different nitrogen gas flow rates (N₂). The material was activated with KOH and then pyrolyzed at 700 ℃ under varying N₂ flow rates from 200 to 400 standard cubic centimeters per minute (sccm). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images revealed that the surface morphology appears to have a highly porous structure. The highest specific surface area (SSA) (1936 m² g^-1) was achieved following activation at 300 sccm, confirmed by the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) results. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Raman spectroscopy indicated that the crystal structure was amorphous. Through electrochemical tests, the quasi-rectangular cyclic-voltammogram (CV) graph of the LIC coin-cell constructed by CACN (LICN) has similar characteristics to capacitors and batteries. The best coulombic stability was found for LIC with CACN activated at 300 sccm, presenting the highest energy and power density (10.79 Wh kg^-1 and 526.39 W kg^-1) by charge-discharge (CD) tests. This optimization of carbon activation enables us to achieve the optimum physical characteristics and electrochemical performance of activated carbon and LIC, respectively.
- nitrogen gas flow rate,
- activated carbon,
- corncob,
- lithium-ion capacitor,
- physical properties,
- electrochemical performance
Citation: Asih Kurniasari, Ariono Verdianto, Yoyok Dwi Setyo Pambudi, Chairul Hudaya. Influence of nitrogen gas flow rate on the physical properties of corncob activated carbon for lithium-ion capacitor electrodes[J]. AIMS Energy, 2026, 14(1): 259-274. doi: 10.3934/energy.2026011

Related Papers:

Abstract

To address the disadvantages of both lithium-ion batteries (low power density) and supercapacitors (low energy density), lithium-ion capacitors (LICs) were created as a hybrid energy storage system. In this study, the biomass-derived activated carbon from corncob (CACN) was prepared by adopting physical and chemical activation processes under different nitrogen gas flow rates (N₂). The material was activated with KOH and then pyrolyzed at 700 ℃ under varying N₂ flow rates from 200 to 400 standard cubic centimeters per minute (sccm). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images revealed that the surface morphology appears to have a highly porous structure. The highest specific surface area (SSA) (1936 m² g^-1) was achieved following activation at 300 sccm, confirmed by the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) results. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Raman spectroscopy indicated that the crystal structure was amorphous. Through electrochemical tests, the quasi-rectangular cyclic-voltammogram (CV) graph of the LIC coin-cell constructed by CACN (LICN) has similar characteristics to capacitors and batteries. The best coulombic stability was found for LIC with CACN activated at 300 sccm, presenting the highest energy and power density (10.79 Wh kg^-1 and 526.39 W kg^-1) by charge-discharge (CD) tests. This optimization of carbon activation enables us to achieve the optimum physical characteristics and electrochemical performance of activated carbon and LIC, respectively.

References

[1]	Niu H, Zhang N, Lu Y, et al. (2024) Strategies toward the development of high-energy-density lithium batteries. J Energy Storage 88: 111666. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EST.2024.111666 doi: 10.1016/J.EST.2024.111666
[2]	Li M, Lu J, Chen Z, et al. (2018) 30 years of lithium-ion batteries. Adv Mater 30: 1800561. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201800561 doi: 10.1002/adma.201800561
[3]	Pambudi YDS, Setiabudy R, Yuwono AH, et al. (2019) Effects of annealing temperature on the electrochemical characteristics of ZnO microrods as anode materials of lithium-ion battery using chemical bath deposition. Ionics 25: 457-466. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11581-018-2723-z doi: 10.1007/s11581-018-2723-z
[4]	Venkatesh M, Amit Kumar Thakur, Lovi Raj Gupta, et al. (2024) A comprehensive review of concepts, benefits, and challenges of a battery-powered aircraft. Evergreen 11: 1901-1918. https://doi.org/10.5109/7236841 doi: 10.5109/7236841
[5]	Hasan MM, Haque R, Jahirul MI, et al. (2025) Advancing energy storage: The future trajectory of lithium-ion battery technologies. J Energy Storage 120: 116511. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EST.2025.116511 doi: 10.1016/J.EST.2025.116511
[6]	Diantoro M, Nasikhudin, Suryana R, et al. (2024) Addition of Al_2O_3 to the Al_2O_3/AC//Si electrode to enhance the performance of supercapattery. Evergreen 11: 2081-2090. https://doi.org/10.5109/7236853 doi: 10.5109/7236853
[7]	Aziz SB, Brza MA, Abdulwahid RT, et al. (2023) Electrochemical properties of a novel EDLC derived from plasticized biopolymer based electrolytes with valuable energy density close to NiMH batteries. Sci Rep 13: 21139. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-48417-6 doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-48417-6
[8]	Burke AF, Zhao J (2022) Development, performance, and vehicle applications of high energy density electrochemical capacitors. Appl Sci 12: 1726. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12031726 doi: 10.3390/app12031726
[9]	Jeżowski P, Crosnier O, Deunf E, et al. (2018) Safe and recyclable lithium-ion capacitors using sacrificial organic lithium salt. Nat Mater 17: 167-173. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat5029 doi: 10.1038/nmat5029
[10]	Wang Y, Xue K, Zhang X, et al. (2023) High-voltage electrochemical double layer capacitors enabled by polymeric ionic liquid. Electrochim Acta 441: 141829. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ELECTACTA.2023.141829 doi: 10.1016/J.ELECTACTA.2023.141829
[11]	Sun F, Gao J, Zhu Y, et al. (2017) A high performance lithium-ion capacitor achieved by the integration of a Sn-C anode and a biomass-derived microporous activated carbon cathode. Sci Rep 7: 40990. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep40990 doi: 10.1038/srep40990
[12]	Agrawal R, Chen C, Dages S, et al. (2016) Lithium-ion capacitor based on electrodes constructed via electrostatic spray deposition. ECS Trans 72: 45-53. https://doi.org/10.1149/07208.0045ecst doi: 10.1149/07208.0045ecst
[13]	Lamb JJ, Burheim OS (2021) Lithium-ion capacitors: A review of design and active materials. Energies 14: 979. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14040979 doi: 10.3390/en14040979
[14]	Song T, Zhao Y, Chen C, et al. (2024) Recyclable NaCl template assisted preparation of N/O co-doped porous carbon for zinc-ion hybrid capacitor. J Energy Storage 98: 113148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2024.113148 doi: 10.1016/j.est.2024.113148
[15]	Xu H, Ni J, Chen W, et al. (2025) Nitrogen and oxygen co-doped porous carbon tubes with fast ion diffusion channel for supercapacitor. Energy Technol 14: e202501597. https://doi.org/10.1002/ente.202501597 doi: 10.1002/ente.202501597
[16]	Qiao L, Chen W, Zhao Y, et al. (2026) Recrystallization template method to construct B/N co-doped hierarchically porous carbon for supercapacitor and zinc ion hybrid capacitor. J Energy Storage 141: 119336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2025.119336 doi: 10.1016/j.est.2025.119336
[17]	Xu H, Ni J, Liu M, et al. (2026) Boron-enriched edge-nitrogen doped porous carbon nanosheets as cathode for zinc-ion hybrid capacitors. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 181: 106511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2025.106511 doi: 10.1016/j.jtice.2025.106511
[18]	Amatucci GG, Badway F, Du Pasquier A, et al. (2001) An asymmetric hybrid nonaqueous energy storage cell. J Electrochem Soc 148: A930. https://doi.org/10.1149/1.1383553 doi: 10.1149/1.1383553
[19]	Ruan D, Kim MS, Yang B, et al. (2017) 700 F hybrid capacitors cells composed of activated carbon and Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ microspheres with ultra-long cycle life. J Power Sources 366: 200-206. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JPOWSOUR.2017.09.029 doi: 10.1016/J.JPOWSOUR.2017.09.029
[20]	Zhao B, Ran R, Liu M, et al. (2015) A comprehensive review of Li₄Ti₅O₁₂-based electrodes for lithium-ion batteries: The latest advancements and future perspectives. Mater Sci Eng R Rep 98: 1-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MSER.2015.10.001 doi: 10.1016/J.MSER.2015.10.001
[21]	Zhao S, Sun X, Wang N, et al. (2024) Recent advances in hybrid lithium-ion capacitors: Materials and processes. ACS Appl Energy Mater 7: 11553-11570. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.4c00230 doi: 10.1021/acsaem.4c00230
[22]	Chen C, Agrawal R, Wang C (2015) High performance Li₄Ti₅O₁₂/Si composite anodes for Li-ion batteries. Nanomaterials 5: 1469-1480. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano5031469 doi: 10.3390/nano5031469
[23]	Gangaja B, Nair S, Santhanagopalan D (2024) Li₄Ti₅O₁₂-TiO₂ composite anode for high performance full-cell Li-ion battery and Li-ion capacitor applications. Discov Electrochem 1: 5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44373-024-00002-w doi: 10.1007/s44373-024-00002-w
[24]	Li B, Zhang H, Wang D, et al. (2017) Agricultural waste-derived activated carbon for high performance lithium-ion capacitors. RSC Adv 7: 37923-37928. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7RA06680E doi: 10.1039/C7RA06680E
[25]	Eleri OE, Lou F, Yu Z (2023) Lithium-ion capacitors: A review of strategies toward enhancing the performance of the activated carbon cathode. Batteries 9: 533. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9110533 doi: 10.3390/batteries9110533
[26]	Gao X, Zhan C, Yu X, et al. (2017) A high performance lithium-ion capacitor with both electrodes prepared from Sri Lanka Graphite Ore. Materials 10: 414. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma10040414 doi: 10.3390/ma10040414
[27]	Liu C, Koyyalamudi BB, Li L, et al. (2016) Improved capacitive energy storage via surface functionalization of activated carbon as cathodes for lithium-ion capacitors. Carbon 109: 163-172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2016.07.071 doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2016.07.071
[28]	Sennu P, Arun N, Madhavi S, et al. (2019) All carbon based high energy lithium-ion capacitors from biomass: The role of crystallinity. J Power Sources 414: 96-102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.12.089 doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.12.089
[29]	Zhang Y, Sheng L, Zhao C, et al. (2025) Tailored biomass-derived porous carbon with dual-activator for high-mass-loading supercapacitors with enhanced rate capabilities. J Energy Storage 136: 118601. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2025.118601 doi: 10.1016/j.est.2025.118601
[30]	Malini K, Selvakumar D, Kumar NS (2023) Activated carbon from biomass: Preparation, factors improving basicity and surface properties for enhanced CO₂ capture capacity—A review. J CO₂ Util 67: 102318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcou.2022.102318
[31]	Azargohar R, Dalai AK (2006) Biochar as a precursor of activated carbon. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 131: 762-773. https://doi.org/10.1385/ABAB:131:1:762 doi: 10.1385/ABAB:131:1:762
[32]	Magar SD, Leibing C, Gόmez-Urbano JL, et al. (2023) Brewery waste derived activated carbon for high performance electrochemical capacitors and lithium-ion capacitors. Electrochim Acta 446: 142104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2023.142104 doi: 10.1016/j.electacta.2023.142104
[33]	Purnomo CW, Widyadhana A (2020) Lithium and calcium recovery by activated carbon from coconut shell char. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng 823: 012032. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/823/1/012032 doi: 10.1088/1757-899X/823/1/012032
[34]	Wang J, Kaskel S (2012) KOH activation of carbon-based materials for energy storage. J Mater Chem 22: 23710. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2jm34066f doi: 10.1039/c2jm34066f
[35]	Hui TS, Zaini MAA (2015) Potassium hydroxide activation of activated carbon: A commentary. Carbon Lett 16: 275-280. https://doi.org/10.5714/CL.2015.16.4.275 doi: 10.5714/CL.2015.16.4.275
[36]	Li H, Ma Y, Wang Y, et al. (2024) Nitrogen enriched high specific surface area biomass porous carbon: A promising electrode material for supercapacitors. Renewable Energy 224: 120144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2024.120144 doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2024.120144
[37]	KaruniaBr E (2024) Inovasi pemanfaatan limbah tongkol jagung menjadi biochar sebagai adsorben slow release fertilizer. Available from: https://www.kompasiana.com/ermakaruniabrginting/666f232fed64153c0748ebe3/inovasi-pemanfaatan-limbah-tongkol-jagung-menjadi-biochar-sebagai-adsorben-slow-release-fertilizer.
[38]	Girgis BS, Temerk YM, Gadelrab MM, et al. (2007) X-ray diffraction patterns of activated carbons prepared under various conditions. Carbon Lett 8: 95-100. https://doi.org/10.5714/CL.2007.8.2.095 doi: 10.5714/CL.2007.8.2.095
[39]	Aboud M, ALOthman Z, Habila M, et al. (2015) Hydrogen storage in pristine and d10-block metal-anchored activated carbon made from local wastes. Energies 8: 3578-3590. https://doi.org/10.3390/en8053578 doi: 10.3390/en8053578
[40]	Sisu C, Iordanescu R, Stanciu V, et al. (2016) Raman spectroscopy studies of some carbon molecular sieves. Dig J Nanomater Bios 11: 435-442. Available from: https://www.imrpress.com/journal/DJNB/article/11/2/pii/S1842-3582(26)01457-0.
[41]	Wu JB, Lin ML, Cong X, et al. (2018) Raman spectroscopy of graphene-based materials and its applications in related devices. Chem Soc Rev 47: 1822-1873. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6CS00915H doi: 10.1039/C6CS00915H
[42]	Dresselhaus MS, Jorio A, Souza Filho AG, et al. (2010) Defect characterization in graphene and carbon nanotubes using Raman spectroscopy. Philos Trans A Math Phys Eng Sci 368: 5355-5377. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2010.0213 doi: 10.1098/rsta.2010.0213
[43]	Bulakhe RN, Nguyen AP, Ryu C, et al. (2023) Facile synthesis of mesoporous nanohybrid two-dimensional layered Ni-Cr-S and reduced graphene oxide for high-performance hybrid supercapacitors. Materials 16: 6598. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16196598 doi: 10.3390/ma16196598
[44]	Pan Z, Yu S, Wang L, et al. (2023) Recent advances in porous carbon materials as electrodes for supercapacitors. Nanomaterials 13: 1744. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano13111744 doi: 10.3390/nano13111744
[45]	Bang JH, Lee BH, Choi YC, et al. (2022) A study on superior mesoporous activated carbons for ultra power density supercapacitor from biomass precursors. Int J Mol Sci 23: 8537. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23158537 doi: 10.3390/ijms23158537
[46]	Elgrishi N, Rountree KJ, McCarthy BD, et al. (2018) A practical beginner's guide to cyclic voltammetry. J Chem Educ 95: 197-206. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.7b00361 doi: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.7b00361
[47]	Lu X, Lian GJ, Parker J, et al. (2024) Effect of carbon blacks on electrical conduction and conductive binder domain of next-generation lithium-ion batteries. J Power Sources 592: 233916. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2023.233916 doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2023.233916
[48]	Puthusseri D, Aravindan V, Madhavi S, et al. (2014) Improving the energy density of Li-ion capacitors using polymer-derived porous carbons as cathode. Electrochim Acta 130: 766-770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2014.03.079 doi: 10.1016/j.electacta.2014.03.079
[49]	Balaji Mohan V, Liu D, Jayaraman K, et al. (2016) Improvements in electronic structure and properties of graphene derivatives. Adv Mater Lett 7: 421-429. https://doi.org/10.5185/amlett.2016.6123 doi: 10.5185/amlett.2016.6123
[50]	Ferrari AC, Robertson J (2000) Interpretation of Raman spectra of disordered and amorphous carbon. Phys Rev B 61: 14095-14107. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.61.14095 doi: 10.1103/PhysRevB.61.14095
[51]	Xiao L, Lu H, Fang Y, et al. (2018) Low‐defect and low-porosity hard carbon with high coulombic efficiency and high capacity for practical sodium ion battery anode. Adv Energy Mater 8: 1703238. https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201703238 doi: 10.1002/aenm.201703238
[52]	Zhu Y, Murali S, Stoller MD, et al. (2011) Carbon-based supercapacitors produced by activation of graphene. Science 332: 1537-1541. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1200770 doi: 10.1126/science.1200770
[53]	Suhas, Chaudhary M, Chaudhary S, et al. (2025) Transforming biomass waste into hydrochars and porous activated carbon: A characterization study. Resources 14: 34. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14030034 doi: 10.3390/resources14030034
[54]	Zhang T, Zhang F, Zhang L, et al. (2015) High energy density Li-ion capacitor assembled with all graphene-based electrodes. Carbon 92: 106-118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2015.03.032 doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2015.03.032

Reader Comments

Your name:*

Email:*
© 2026 the Author(s), licensee AIMS Press. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)