Differences in structure of northern Australian hypolithic communities according to location, rock type, and gross morphology

1.   Introduction

For a multi-node network system, consensus problems play a particular significance role in both theories and applications. Such problems are broadly investigated in fields of distributed computing [7], management science [1], flocking/swarming theory [16], distributed control [2] and sensor networks [11], and so on. Such systems also seem to have remarkable capability to regulate the flow of information from distinct and independent nodes to achieve a prescribed performance. As previous observations in both simulation and theory, the connectedness of the adjacency matrix and the processing delay play key roles to make the system achieve the emergent feature. The main motivation in current work is to analyze and explain the dynamical consensus patterns in a multi-node system, while the connectedness of the adjacency matrix is absent and the distributed processing delays are also involved in.

In this paper, we consider a $ N $-node network system with the distributed processing delay, reading as,

where $ {x}_i\in{R^n} $ denotes the $ n $ dimensional state of $ i $-th node at time $ t $. $ \lambda $ is a constant measured the coupling strength. $ \bar{x}_j(t) = \int_{-\tau}^0\varphi(s)x_j(t+s)ds $ measures the average of $ v_j $ on $ [t-\tau, t] $, where $ \tau $ denotes the maximum processing delay from $ j $ to $ i $, $ \varphi $ is a (positive) normalized distributed function so that $ \int_{-\tau}^0\varphi(s)ds = 1 $. $ \bar{x}_i(t) $ is defined similarly. In physically, a more realistic model should include a delay distribution over the time that depicts the human behavior in average. Usually, the traffic flow models are inherently time delayed because of the limited sensing and acting capabilities of drivers against velocity and position variations [9]. As we known, the delays usually follow the uniform distribution, the exponential distribution and discrete distribution. And $ \varphi(s) = \frac{1}{\tau} $ for the case of the unform distribution and $ \varphi(s) = \frac{\alpha}{1-e^{-\alpha\tau}}e^{\alpha s} $ for the exponential distribution, where $ \alpha $ is a positive constant. The constant $ a_{ij}\geq 0 $ is the strength of the influence of node $ j $ on $ i $ and $ a_{ii} = 0 $. In this model, the interaction involves delayed information processing, where the difference of the average states $ x_j-x_i $ influences the dynamics of the nodes after some time delay $ \tau $.

In the previously published works, consensus problems have often been studied with discrete processing delays [5,6,11], time-varying processing delays [8,12] and $ \gamma $-distribution delays [9,10] and the references therein. The case of discrete delay is always viewed as a delay with Bernoulli distribution. Mathematically, there have been many contributions to the stability of network system with processing delays, see [3,14,15] for examples.

To understand the dynamical consensus patterns better, we assume the adjacency matrix $ A = (a_{ij})_{N\times N} $ is a symmetric matrix. Let $ C = \sum_{i,j = 1}^Na_{ij} $ be the volume of the system and $ a_{ij} $ be normalized by

Let $ \tilde{\lambda} = \lambda C $, then we can rewrite the system (1) in the form

It is easy to find that the system (1) and system (2) have the same dynamical behaviors.

Let $ \tilde{A} = (\tilde{a}_{ij})_{N\times N} $, then $ \tilde{A} $ is a one-row-sum matrix and stochastic matrix [13]. Also it is a diagonalizable matrix, $ 1 $ is one of its eigenvalues and all other eigenvalues are real. Throughout the paper, we assume the eigenvalue $ 1 $ of stochastic matrix $ \tilde{A} $ is semi-simple with algebraic multiplicity $ n_0 $. And all different eigenvalues of $ \tilde{A} $ are $ \mu_i (i = 1, 2,\cdots,{m_0}) $ with the algebraic multiplicity $ p_i $. All eigenvalues of $ \tilde{A} $ satisfy the order

Naturally, if $ n_0 = 1 $, then the matrix $ \tilde{A} $ is a connected matrix. And when $ n_0>1 $, the connectedness of matrix $ \tilde{A} $ will be absent. From the matrix theory, we see that there is an orthogonal matrix $ {T}_0 $ such that $ \tilde{A} = {T}_0 {J}_0 {T}_0^{-1} $, where $ {J}_0 $ is a diagonal matrix with the first block $ I_{n_0} $, say $ {J}_0 = \left (

$$\begin{array}{cc} I_{n_0} & \mathbf{0} \\ \mathbf{0} & {J}^* \end{array}$$ \right ) $, where $ \mathbf{0} $ is zero matrix with matchable dimension. Define the norm of a real matrix $ {S}\in R^{N\times m} $ by $ \| {S}\| = \sup_{|\mathbf{\alpha}|\neq 0}\frac{| {S}\mathbf{\alpha}|}{|\mathbf{\alpha}|}, \ \ \mathbf{\alpha}\in R^m, $ then $ \|{T}_0\| = \|{T}_0^{-1}\| = 1 $.

To find the qualitative behaviors, we finish this section by considering the equation

and its characteristic equation is

Lemma 1.1. ([4], Corollary 6.1, P215) If $ a_0 = \max\{Re z: h_0(z) = 0\} $, then, for any $ c_0>a_0 $, there is a constant $ K = K(c_0) $ such that the fundamental solution $ S_w(t) $ of the equation (3) satisfies the inequality

2.   Main results

To specify a solution for the network system (1), we need to specify the initial conditions

where $ {f}_i $ is a given continuous vector-value function.

Definition 2.1. Suppose $ \{{x}_i (t)\}_{i = 1}^N $ is a solution to (1) and (5). The above system is said to achieve a weak periodic consensus, if there are periodic functions $ \phi_{pi}(t) $ with a same period such that

If $ {x_{i\infty}} = {x}_\infty $ for all $ i $, then the system is said to achieve a periodic consensus, where $ {x}_\infty \in {R^n} $ is a constant vector; If all $ \phi_{pi}(t) = 0 $, the system (1) is said to achieve a weak consensus. If both $ {x_{i\infty}} = {x}_\infty $ and $ \phi_{pi}(t) = 0 $ hold, it is said to achieve a consensus.

Let $ f_{max} = \max\{\|\mathbf{f}(\theta)\|: \theta\in[-\tau,0]\} $ for $ \mathbf{f}(\theta) = (f_1(\theta),\cdots,f_N(\theta))^T $ and

where $ y_{im} $ is a minimum positive root of equation

Set

then we obtain the following results and the details of proof will be given in sequel.

Lemma 2.2. Let $ \tilde{\lambda}>0 $. If $ 0\leq\tilde{\lambda}\tau(1-\mu_{m_0})<k^* $, then all other roots of the equation (4) have negative real parts and $ c_1<0 $. If $ \tilde{\lambda}\tau(1-\mu_{m_0}) = k^* $, then all other roots, except the pure imaginary roots, of the equations $ z+\tilde{\lambda}(1- \mu_i)\int_{-\tau}^0\varphi(s)e^{z s}ds = 0 $ $ (i = 2,\cdots,m_0-1) $ have negative real parts and $ c_2<0 $.

Theorem 2.3. Let $ \mathbf{X}(t) = (x_1(t),\cdots,x_N(t))^T $ be a solution of system (1) and $ 1 $ be a $ n_0 $-multiple eigenvalue of the matrix $ \tilde{A} $.

(1) Assume $ 0\leq\tilde{\lambda}\tau(1-\mu_{m_0}) <k^* $, then the system achieves a weak consensus with

and, for all $ \varepsilon\in(0,-c_1) $, there is constant $ K_1 $ such that

Especially, when $ n_0 = 1 $, the system achieves a consensus.

(2) Assume $ \tilde{\lambda}\tau(1-\mu_{m_0}) = k^* $, then the system achieves a weak periodic consensus with

and, for all $ \varepsilon\in(0,-c_2) $, there is constant $ K_2 $ such that

where $ \mathbf{X}_p(t) $ is formulated by (16). Especially, when $ n_0 = 1 $, the system achieves a periodic consensus.

Remark 1. For the case of uniform distribution, the distributed function is $ \varphi(s)\equiv \frac{1}{\tau} $. By direct computation, we see that $ k^* = \frac{\pi^2}{2} $ and $ y_{im} = \frac{\pi}{\tau} $. The values of $ k^* $ and $ y_{im} $ for typical distributions are listed in following table.

3.   Proof of main results

Proof of Lemma 2.1 Assume $ z = x+yi $ $ (y>0) $ is a root of $ z+\tilde{\lambda}(1- \mu_i)\int_{-\tau}^0\varphi(s)e^{z s}ds = 0 $. Then we have

Next, we show that $ x\leq 0 $ for $ y\in [0,y_{im}] $. Indeed, assume $ x>0 $, then $ \int_{-\tau}^0\varphi(s)e^{xs}\cos(ys)ds<0 $. {Let $ \tau_i(i = 1,2,\cdots,k) $ be all the roots of equation $ \cos(ys) = 0 $ on $ [-\tau,0] $. Also, we assume that

Set

then

Noting that $ y\in[0,y_{im}) $ and $ r = y_{im} $ is a minimum positive root of equation $ \int_{-\tau}^0\varphi(s)\cos(rs)ds = 0, $ we see that $ \int_{-\tau}^0\varphi(s)\cos(ys)ds>0 $ and $ \sum_{i = 0}^{l}(-1)^{i}A_i>0 $ for $ l = 1,2,\cdots,k $.

By direct computation, for $ x>0 $, we have $ \tilde{A}_0-\tilde{A}_1>e^{x\tau_1}({A}_0-{A}_1)>0 $ and

For generally, we have

It contradicts with $ \int_{-\tau}^0\varphi(s)e^{xs}\cos(ys)ds<0 $. Thus all other roots of the equation $ z+\tilde{\lambda}(1- \mu_i)\int_{-\tau}^0\varphi(s)e^{z s}ds = 0 $ have negative real parts when $ y\in [0,y_{im}) $. When $ y = y_{im} $, except the pure imaginary roots, the equation $ z+\tilde{\lambda}(1- \mu_{i})\int_{-\tau}^0\varphi(s)e^{z s}ds = 0 $ have negative real parts when $ i = 2,\cdots, m_0-1 $.

On the other hand, combining

and the fact $ \tau y_{im}+k^*\int_{-\tau}^0\varphi(s)\sin(y_{im}s)ds = 0, $ we see that $ y\in [0,y_{im}) $ if and only if $ 0\leq\tilde{\lambda}\tau(1-\mu_{m_0})<k^* $. Also $ y = y_{im} $ if and only if $ \tilde{\lambda}\tau(1-\mu_{m_0}) = k^* $. Since $ \tilde{\lambda}\tau(1-\mu_{i})\leq\tilde{\lambda}\tau(1-\mu_{m_0})<k^* $ holds for $ i = 2,\cdots, m_0 $, we conclude that all other roots of the equation (4) have negative real parts when $ 0\leq\tilde{\lambda}\tau(1-\mu_{m_0})<k^* $. Also, if $ \tilde{\lambda}\tau(1-\mu_{m_0}) = k^* $, except the pure imaginary roots, the equation $ z+\tilde{\lambda}(1- \mu_{i})\int_{-\tau}^0\varphi(s)e^{z s}ds = 0 $ have negative real parts when $ i = 2,\cdots, m_0-1 $.

Noting that the set $ \{Re(z):z = -\tilde{\lambda}(1-\mu_i)\int_{-\tau}^0\varphi(s)e^{z s}ds\} $ is up-bounded when $ 0\leq\tilde{\lambda}\tau(1-\mu_{m_0})<k^* $, and from above arguments, we see that the supremum

Assume that $ c_1 = 0 $, then there is a sequence $ \{z_n\} $ $ (z_n = x_n+iy_n, y_n>0) $ with

Thus

and

Then, for $ x_n\leq 0 $, the sequence $ \{y_n\} $ is bounded by $ y_{im} $. Thus there is a convergent subsequence of $ \{y_n\} $. Without loss of generality, we assume $ \{y_n\} $ is a convergent sequence with the limit $ y_\infty $ satisfying $ y_\infty\leq y_{im} $. For $ \lim_{n\rightarrow\infty}x_n = 0 $, we see that

If $ y_\infty< y_{im} $, then it contradicts that $ r = y_{im} $ is a minimum positive root of equation $ \int_{-\tau}^0\varphi(s)\cos(rs)ds = 0. $ If $ y_\infty = y_{im} $, for $ \tilde{\lambda}(1-\mu_i)<\tilde{\lambda}\tau(1-\mu_{m_0})<k^* $, then it contradicts with $ \tau y_{im}+k^*\int_{-\tau}^0\varphi(s)\sin(y_{im}s)ds = 0. $ Thus $ c_1<0 $. Similar arguments yield $ c_2<0 $. This completes the proof.

Proof of Theorem 2.1 Let $ \mathbf{X} = (x_1,x_2,\cdots,x_N)^T $ and $ \mathbf{\bar{X}}(t) = \int_{-\tau}^0\varphi(s)\mathbf{X}(t+s)ds $. Thus the system (1) can be rewritten with the vector form, reading as,

Recalling $ \tilde{A} = T_0\left (

$$\begin{array}{cc} I_{n_0} & \mathbf{0}\\ \mathbf{0} & J^* \end{array}$$ \right )T_0^{-1} $ and let

then the equation of (10) yields

That is, $ \dot{y}_i(t) = 0 $ for $ i = 1,2,\cdots,n_0 $, and $ \mathbf{y}^*(t) $ solves the equation (3). And then the characteristic equation $ h_0(z) = 0 $ becomes

where $ p_i $ is the algebraic multiplicity of $ \mu_i $, $ m_0 $ is the number of the different eigenvalues of $ {P}_0 $.

Let $ \mathbf{{S}}^*(t) $ be a fundamental solution operator of the equation (3). Then the solution $ \mathbf{X}(t) $ of the equation (10) becomes

Let

By using the equalities (12) and (13), we have

CASE Ⅰ: $ \tilde{\lambda}\tau(1-\mu_{m_0})<k^* $. Following Lemma 2.1, we see that all roots of the characteristic equation (11) have negative real parts. And from Lemma 1.1, there are a constant $ K_1>0 $ such that

Thus $ \|\mathbf{S}^*(t)\|\leq K_1e^{-(|c_1|-\varepsilon)t} \ \mbox{ for all}\ \varepsilon\in(0,-c_1) $ and

This implies that

It means that $ \lim_{t\rightarrow\infty}\mathbf{X}(t+\theta) = \mathbf{{X}}_{a}(\theta). $ On the other hand, noting that $ \dot{y}_i(t) = 0 $ for $ i = 1,2,\cdots,n_0 $ and $ \lim_{t\rightarrow\infty}\mathbf{y}^*(t) = \mathbf{{0}} $, we conclude that

Thus, we have

and

Thus, from Definition 2.1, the system (1) achieves a weak consensus.

Especially, when $ n_0 = 1 $, for $ T_0 $ is an orthogonal matrix, then $ \mathbf{{X}}_{\infty} $ are formulated by

where $ \otimes $ denotes the Kronecker product. Thus the system (1) reaches a consensus.

CASE Ⅱ: $ \tilde{\lambda}\tau(1-\mu_{m_0}) = k^* $. Consider the equation

and its characteristic equation is given by $ z = -\tilde{\lambda}(1-\mu_{m_0})\int_{-\tau}^0\varphi(s)e^{zs}ds $. From the definition of $ k^* $, we see that $ \pm y_{im}i $ are two pure imaginary roots of above equation. Thus both $ e^{ty_{im}i} $ and $ e^{-ty_{im}i} $ are solutions of the given equation, and then both $ \cos(y_{im}t) $ and $ \sin(y_{im}t) $ are also solutions. Thus the periodic solution $ y(t) $ would be formulated by $ y(t) = c_1\cos(y_{im}t)+c_2\sin(y_{im}t) $. Substituting the initial values, we find that the basic periodic solution is

Let

and rewrite the diagonal matrix $ J $ as

Similarly, let $ \mathbf{{S}}_p^*(t) $ be a fundamental solution operator of the equation

Then the solution $ \mathbf{X}(t) $ in (10) becomes

for $ t\in [0,+\infty), \theta\in [-\tau,0]. $

To find the asymptotic behaviors, we consider the characteristic equation corresponding to (17), reading as

By direct computation, the above equation becomes

Noting $ \tilde{\lambda}\tau(1-\mu_{j})<k^* $ for $ j = 2,\cdots, m_0-1, $ and all roots of $ h_1(z) = 0 $ are also the roots of $ h_0(z) = 0 $, following Lemma 2.1, we see that all roots of the characteristic equation (19) have negative real parts when $ \tilde{\lambda}\tau(1-\mu_{m_0}) = k^* $.

Following Lemma 1.1, there is a constant $ K_2>0 $ such that

Thus $ \|\mathbf{S}^*_p(t)\|\leq K_2e^{-(|c_2|-\varepsilon)t} \ \mbox{for all}\ \varepsilon\in(0,-c_2) $ and

This implies that

Thus

Furthermore, when $ n_0 = 1 $, all the components of $ \mathbf{{X}}_{\infty} $ are same. Also, all the components of $ \mathbf{{X}}_{p}(t) $ are periodic functions with a same period $ \frac{2\pi}{y^*} $ and

Thus it follows from Definition 2.1 that the system (1) achieves a periodic consensus when $ n_0 = 1 $. When $ n_0>1 $, the system (1) achieves a weak periodic consensus. This completes the proof.

4.   Numerical simulation

In this section, we verify our main conclusions by a series of numerical simulations. We consider the system (1) with 10 nodes. The initial velocities are given as follows:

Case Ⅰ. Consider the adjacency $ A = (a_{ij})_{N\times N} $ satisfying $ a_{ij} = 1(j\neq i) $ and $ a_{ii} = 0 $. Then $ \tilde{A} = (\tilde{a}_{ij})_{N\times N} $ satisfies $ \tilde{a}_{ij} = \frac{1}{N(N-1)}(j\neq i) $ and $ \tilde{a}_{ii} = \frac{N-1}{N} $. Direct calculation yields

Let $ N = 10 $, we obtain $ \mu_1 = 1(n_0 = p_1 = 1) $ and $ \mu_2 = \frac{8}{9}(p_2 = 9) $. The simulation results and values of $ \tilde{\lambda} $ and $ \tau $ for different distribution function are listed in Table 3.

Case Ⅱ. In order to understand the dynamical behaviours when the parameter $ \tilde{\lambda} $ is changing, we consider the case $ A = \left(

$$\begin{array}{cc} A_1& \textbf{0}\\ \textbf{0}& A_2 \end{array}$$ \right)_{2N\times2N} $, where $ A_1 = (a_{ij}^{(1)})_{N\times N} $ satisfies $ a_{ij}^{(1)} = 1(j\neq i) $ and $ a_{ii}^{(1)} = 0 $, $ A_2 = (a_{ij}^{(2)})_{N\times N} $ satisfies $ a_{ij}^{(2)} = 1(j>i) $ and $ a_{ii}^{(2)} = 0 $. Then $ \tilde{A} = (\tilde{a}_{ij})_{2N\times2N} $ satisfies $ \tilde{a}_{ij} = \frac{2}{3N(N-1)}(j\neq i) $ and

Direct calculation yields

Take $ N = 5 $, we obtain $ \mu_1 = 1(n_0 = p_1 = 2) $, $ \mu_2 = \frac{29}{30}(p_2 = 1) $, $ \mu_3 = \frac{14}{15}(p_3 = 1) $, $ \mu_4 = \frac{9}{10}(p_4 = 1) $, $ \mu_5 = \frac{13}{15}(p_5 = 1) $ and $ \mu_6 = \frac{5}{6}(p_6 = 4) $. Let $ x_i(i = 6,7,...,10) $ be in Group 1 (blue line) and the others $ x_i(i = 1,2,...,5) $ in Group 2 (red line). In this case, the numerical simulations results are listed in Table 4.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the editors and the reviewers for their careful reading of the paper and their constructive comments.