The impact of latrine contents and emptying practices on nitrogen contamination of well water in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal

Acile S. Hammoud; Jessica Leung; Sabitri Tripathi; Adrian P. Butler; May N. Sule; Michael R. Templeton; Acile S. Hammoud; Jessica Leung; Sabitri Tripathi; Adrian P. Butler; May N. Sule; Michael R. Templeton

doi:10.3934/environsci.2018.3.143

AIMS Environmental Science

2018, Volume 5, Issue 3: 143-153. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2018.3.143

Previous Article Next Article

Research article

The impact of latrine contents and emptying practices on nitrogen contamination of well water in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal

1.
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom SW7 2AZ, UK
2.
Nepal Engineering College, Bhaktapur, Nepal

Received: 14 March 2018 Accepted: 27 May 2018 Published: 31 May 2018

Leaching of nitrogen-containing compounds (e.g., ammonia, nitrate) from pit latrines and seepage tanks into groundwater may pose health risks, given that groundwater is a significant source for drinking water in many low-income countries. In this study, three communities within Kathmandu, Nepal (Manohara, Kupondole, and Lokanthali) were visited to investigate the impact of pit latrines on groundwater quality, with a focus on understanding the fate of nitrogen-containing compounds specifically. Well water samples were analyzed over two seasons (wet and dry) for their nitrogen content, dissolved oxygen (DO), chemical oxidation demand (COD), and oxidation-reduction potential (ORP), and samples collected from within the nearby pits were also analyzed to determine nitrogen content and COD. Hand dug wells were found to be more likely receptors of contamination than tube wells, as expected, with inter-well variations related to the relative redox conditions in the wells. Increased pit-emptying frequency was related to lower levels of nitrogen in the latrines and in the nearest wells, suggesting this may be an effective strategy for reducing the risks of groundwater contamination in such settings, all else being equal.

Keywords:

Citation: Acile S. Hammoud, Jessica Leung, Sabitri Tripathi, Adrian P. Butler, May N. Sule, Michael R. Templeton. The impact of latrine contents and emptying practices on nitrogen contamination of well water in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal[J]. AIMS Environmental Science, 2018, 5(3): 143-153. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2018.3.143

Related Papers:

[1]	Michael R. Templeton, Acile S. Hammoud, Adrian P. Butler, Laura Braun, Julie-Anne Foucher, Johanna Grossmann, Moussa Boukari, Serigne Faye, Jean Patrice Jourda . Nitrate pollution of groundwater by pit latrines in developing countries. AIMS Environmental Science, 2015, 2(2): 302-313. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2015.2.302
[2]	Maryem EL FAHEM, Abdellah BENZAOUAK, Habiba ZOUITEN, Amal SERGHINI, Mohamed FEKHAOUI . Hydrogeochemical assessment of mine water discharges from mining activity. Case of the Haut Beht mine (central Morocco). AIMS Environmental Science, 2021, 8(1): 60-85. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2021005
[3]	Liron Shoshani, Asher Brenner, Chaim Sheindorf . Use of an integrated biophysical process for the treatment of halo- and nitro- organic wastes. AIMS Environmental Science, 2017, 4(4): 523-539. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2017.4.523
[4]	Lawton E. Shaw, Ahmad Mibbayad . 2,4-D and Glyphosate affect aquatic biofilm accrual, gross primary production, and community respiration. AIMS Environmental Science, 2016, 3(4): 663-672. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2016.4.663
[5]	M.A. Rahim, M.G. Mostafa . Impact of sugar mills effluent on environment around mills area. AIMS Environmental Science, 2021, 8(1): 86-99. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2021006
[6]	Muhammad Arinal Surgama Yusuf, Anwar Mallongi, Anwar Daud, Agus Bintara Birawida, Sukri Palutturi, Lalu Muhammad Saleh, Setiawan Kasim . Environmental health risk analysis from detergent contamination in well water. AIMS Environmental Science, 2025, 12(2): 256-275. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2025013
[7]	Jirapa Wongsa, Ramita Liamchang, Neti Ngearnpat, Kritchaya Issakul . Cypermethrin insecticide residue, water quality and phytoplankton diversity in the lychee plantation catchment area. AIMS Environmental Science, 2023, 10(5): 609-627. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2023034
[8]	Yenni, Mohd Hafiz Ibrahim, Rosimah Nulit, Siti Zaharah Sakimin . The interactive effects of fertilizer and water stress on plant growth, leaf gas exchange and nutrient uptake on strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa, Duch). AIMS Environmental Science, 2021, 8(6): 597-618. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2021038
[9]	Jianfeng Wen, Yanjin Liu, Yunjie Tu and Mark W. LeChevallier . Energy and chemical efficient nitrogen removal at a full-scale MBR water reuse facility. AIMS Environmental Science, 2015, 2(1): 42-55. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2015.1.42
[10]	Eric Ariel L. Salas, Sakthi Kumaran Subburayalu . Implications of climate change on nutrient pollution: a look into the nitrogen and phosphorus loadings in the Great Miami and Little Miami watersheds in Ohio. AIMS Environmental Science, 2019, 6(3): 186-221. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2019.3.186

Abstract

References

[1]	Graham JP, Polizzotto ML (2013) Pit latrines and their impacts on groundwater quality: A systematic review. Environ Health Perspect 121: 521–530. doi: 10.1289/ehp.1206028
[2]	Nyenje PM, Foppen JW, Kulabako R, et al. (2013) Nutrient pollution in shallow aquifers underlying pit latrines and domestic solid waste dumps in urban slums. J Environ Manage 122: 15–24. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.02.040
[3]	Shamrukh M, Corapcioglu MY, Hassona FAA (2001) Modelling the effect of chemical fertilizers on ground water quality in the Nile Valley Aquifer, Egypt. Groundwater 39: 59–67. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-6584.2001.tb00351.x
[4]	Almasri MN, Kaluarachchi JJ (2007) Modeling nitrate contamination of groundwater in agricultural watersheds. J Hydrol 343: 211–229. doi: 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2007.06.016
[5]	Lee MJ, Hwang S, Ro HM (2014) Interpreting the effect of soil texture on transport and removal of nitrate-N in saline coastal tidal flats under steady-state flow condition. Cont Shelf Res 84: 35–42. doi: 10.1016/j.csr.2014.04.018
[6]	Hutton LG, Lewis WJ (1981) Nitrate pollution of groundwater in Botswana. Water Waste Eng Afr Proc, 112–115.
[7]	Cech I, Davis EM, Gonzales EA, et al. (1979) Use of synographic techniques in research and dissemination of hydrological information. J Am Water Resour Assoc 15: 1691–1706. doi: 10.1111/j.1752-1688.1979.tb01181.x
[8]	Woodward FL, Kilpatrick FJ, Johnson PB (1961) Experiences with groundwater contamination in unsewered areas in Minnesota. Am J Public Health Nations Health 51: 1130–1136. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.51.8.1130
[9]	Templeton MR, Hammoud AS, Butler AP, et al. (2015) Nitrate pollution of groundwater by pit latrines in developing countries. AIMS Environ Sci 2: 302–313. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2015.2.302
[10]	Lewis WJ, Foster SSD, Drasar BS, The Risk of Groundwater Pollution by On-site Sanitation in Developing Country, International Reference Centre for Waste Disposal (IRCWD-now SANDEC) Report, 1980 (01/82).
[11]	Banks D, Karnachuk OV, ParnachevVP, et al. (2002) Groundwater Contamination from Rural Pit Latrines: Examples from Siberia and Kosova. Water Environ J 16: 147–152. doi: 10.1111/j.1747-6593.2002.tb00386.x
[12]	Still DA, Nash SR, Groundwater contamination due to pit latrines located in a sandy aquifer: a case study from Maputaland. Water Institute of Southern Africa Biennial Conference. Durban, South Africa: Water Institute of Southern Africa. 2002: 1–6.
[13]	Dzwairo B, Hoko Z, Love D, et al. (2006) Assessment of the impacts of pit latrines on groundwater quality in rural areas: A case study from Marondera district, Zimbabwe. Phys Chem Earth 31: 779–788. doi: 10.1016/j.pce.2006.08.031
[14]	World Health Organization, Fact Sheet 3.4: Simple Pit Latrines, undated.
[15]	Asian Development Bank, Optimizing water use in Kathmandu Valley project, 2001.
[16]	Yoshida M (1988) Magnetostratigraphy of Plio-Pleistocene lacustrine deposits in the Kathmandu Valley, central Nepal. Proc Indian Natl Sci Acad 54: 410–417.
[17]	Gurung JK, Ishiga H, Khadka MS, et al. (2007) The geochemical study of fluvio-lacustrine aquifers in the Kathmandu Basin (Nepal) and the implications for the mobilization of arsenic. Environ Geol 52: 503–517. doi: 10.1007/s00254-006-0483-y
[18]	Khadka MS (1993) The groundwater quality situation in alluvial aquifers of the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. AGSO J Aust Geol Geophys 14: 207–211
[19]	APHA, AWWA, WEF (2012) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 22^nd edition. APHA, Washington, DC.
[20]	Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research (1980) Standard Methods for Analysis for Soil, Plant, Tissue, Water and Fertilizer. Philippine Government, Los Banos, Laguna.
[21]	Pradhan SB (1996) Soil and Plant Analysis Manual. Nepal Agricultural Research Council.
[22]	New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection (2012) New Jersey Sludge Sampling and Analytical Guidance Document; Division of Water Quality, Bureau of Pretreatment and Residuals.
[23]	Gurung JK, Ishiga H, Khadka MS, et al. Characterization of groundwater in the reference of arsenic and nitrate mobilization, Kathmandu Basin, Nepal.
[24]	Jha MG, Khadka MS, Shrestha MP, et al. (1995) The assessment of groundwater pollution in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. A Report on Joint Nepal-Australia Project, 1996.
[25]	Khatiwada NR, Takizawa S, Tran TVN, et al. (2002) Groundwater contamination assessment for sustainable water supply in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Water Sci Technol 46: 147–154.
[26]	World Health Organization (2011) Nitrate and nitrite in drinking-water.
[27]	Bittner A, Nepal drinking water quality assessment: Nitrate and Ammonia, MSc Thesis, Massachusetts of Technology; 2000.
[28]	Furlong C, Paterson CA (2013) Temporal changes in peri-urban drinking water practices and quality. J Water Sanit Hyg De 3: 522–529. doi: 10.2166/washdev.2013.068

This article has been cited by:

1.	Erin Hylton, Liam Noad, Michael R. Templeton, May N. Sule, The rate of vermi-compost accumulation within ‘Tiger Toilets’ in India, 2020, 0959-3330, 1, 10.1080/09593330.2020.1789750
2.	Sudhakar M. Rao, Nitish V. Mogili, Lydia Arkenadan, Role of evaporation in NH4-N transformations in soils artificially contaminated with blackwater, 2020, 20, 1606-9749, 165, 10.2166/ws.2019.145
3.	Janardan Mainali, Heejun Chang, Environmental and spatial factors affecting surface water quality in a Himalayan watershed, Central Nepal, 2021, 9, 26659727, 100096, 10.1016/j.indic.2020.100096
4.	Seasonal Groundwater Quality Status and Nitrogen Contamination in the Shallow Aquifer System of the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, 2019, 11, 2073-4441, 2184, 10.3390/w11102184
5.	Lilong Liu, Junyi Hu, Yaxin Hou, Zhen Tao, Zhaohui Chen, Ke Chen, Pit latrines may be a potential risk in rural China and low-income countries when dealing with COVID-19, 2021, 761, 00489697, 143283, 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143283
6.	Katharine Conaway, Sarah Lebu, Kylie Heilferty, Aaron Salzberg, Musa Manga, On-site sanitation system emptying practices and influential factors in Asian low- and middle-income countries: a Systematic Review, 2023, 27730492, 100050, 10.1016/j.heha.2023.100050

Reader Comments

Your name:*

Email:*
© 2018 the Author(s), licensee AIMS Press. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)