Citation: Fatima Al-Hashimi, Salvador J. Diaz-Cano. Multi-target analysis of neoplasms for the evaluation of tumor progression: stochastic approach of biologic processes[J]. AIMS Molecular Science, 2018, 5(1): 14-62. doi: 10.3934/molsci.2018.1.14
As the photovoltaic industry strives towards higher conversion efficiency, technology innovations like carrier-selective passivated contact become important for next generation high-efficiency Si solar cells. This is because these contacts can eliminate high recombination at the metal/Si contact and in the heavily diffused regions [1,2,3,4]. Introduction of a thin passivating interlayer between the high recombination regions and the Si absorber mitigates their negative impact because they are not in direct contact with absorber. This reduces total recombination or saturation current density (J0, total), resulting in much higher open-circuit voltage Voc. However, the interlayer must passivate the Si surface without interfering with the majority carrier transport to ensure good fill factor (FF) and efficiency. The best example of passivated contact is the heterojunction Si cell with intrinsic thin amorphous layer (HIT). HIT cells have produced outstanding cell Voc of 750 mV [1] with cell efficiency exceeding 25% [2]. However, this passivation scheme can not withstand temperature above 250ºC for the metallization process, and hence is not compatible with the widely used industry standard low-cost screen-printed fired-through metallization, which requires >700 °C temperature for contact-firing. Therefore, our approach to achieve carrier selective contact involves a chemically grown ultra-thin (~ 15 Å) tunnel oxide capped with phosphorus-doped (n+) polycrystalline Si (poly-Si) and metal contact on the entire back side of n-type Si cell, which makes it thermally stable and compatible with low-cost screen-printed metallization.
Figure 1 shows the band diagram of the tunnel oxide passivated contact structure in this study. Three parallel mechanisms contribute to carrier selectivity in this structure. First, heavily doped n+ poly-Si creates an accumulation layer at the absorber surface due to the work function difference between the n+ poly-Si and the n- Si absorber. This accumulation layer or band bending provides a barrier for holes to get to the tunnel oxide while electrons can migrate easily to the oxide/Si interface. Next, tunnel oxide itself provides the second level of carrier selectivity, because it presents 4.5 eV barrier for holes to tunnel relative to 3.1 eV for electrons [5]. This is the most important carrier selectivity as demonstrated in this study. Third, there are very few or no states on the other side of the dielectric (n+ region) for holes to tunnel through because of the forbidden gap. Even if some holes are able to tunnel through, they will run into the heavily doped n+ poly-Si layer that offers a barrier for holes to get to the meal contact and recombine. Last but not least, due to the full area metal contact on the back, there is one dimensional current flow. This eliminates the lateral transport resistance in a finished solar cell, resulting in much higher FF.
Figure 1. Band diagram of the tunnel oxide passivated contact structure.
In this work, we have investigated the influence of the phosphine and silane flow rate ratio (PH3/SiH4) during the PECVD deposition of amorphous Si (a-Si) film, and the subsequent crystallization and dopant activation anneal temperature on the passivation quality of carrier-selective contact. To study the performance of our passivated contact in a cell, we fabricated large area (239 cm2) n-type front junction Si solar cells with a boron-doped emitter and screen-printed contact on the front side and the tunnel oxide passivated contact on the rear side (see Figure 2).
Figure 2. Schematic of the solar cell structure with tunnel oxide/n+ poly-Si passivated rear contact and the screen-printed front contact.
The interface quality of passivated rear contact was studied by the quasi-steady state photo-conductance (QSSPC) measurements [6] on symmetrical test structures Si(n+)/SiOx/c-Si(n)/SiOx/Si(n+). Symmetrical samples were made on commercially available n-type Cz wafers with a bulk resistivity of 5 Ωcm and bulk lifetime of over 2 ms. The sample preparation involved surface damage removal in a heated KOH solution and a RCA chemical cleaning with a resulting wafer thickness of ~ 170 µm. The tunnel oxide layer was grown in 68 wt% HNO3 acid at a temperature of 100 °C for 10 min. The resulting tunnel oxide thickness was ~ 15 Å, determined by spectral ellipsometry. Next, a thin (<20 nm) phosphorus-doped Si layer was deposited on both sides using a PECVD tool from Unaxis. Note that both precursors PH3 and SiH4 were diluted with H2 in a volume ratio of 5% for the PECVD a-Si deposition. Then, a 875 ºC/30 min thermal anneal was performed in a tube furnace in an inert atmosphere to facilitate dopant activation and crystallization of a-Si film. The flow rate ratio PH3/SiH4 during the PECVD deposition of a-Si film as well as the crystallization temperature was varied in order to study their impact on passivation quality. Finally, the QSSPC technique [7] was used to determine the passivation quality by extracting the implied Voc (iVoc) from the injection level at one sun according to following equation:
| @i{V_{oc}} = \frac{{kT}}{q}{\rm{ln}}\left( {\frac{{\Delta n\left( {\Delta n + {N_D}} \right)}}{{{n_i}^2}}} \right)@ | (1) |
In order to investigate the performance of our rear side tunnel oxide passivated contact in a finished device, large area front junction n-type Si solar cells were fabricated on a ~ 4.5 Ωcm Cz wafers (Figure 2). The fabrication process involved saw damage removal in a heated KOH solution followed by alkaline texturing on both sides of the wafers. Next, a SiNx mask on the front side was deposited, followed by a heated KOH treatment to planarize the back. After the planarization, the wafer thickness was reduced to about 175 µm. The boron ion implantation with proper dose and energy was performed on a production-line implanter at Suniva Inc. Then, a high temperature anneal (> 1000 °C) was used to restore the lattice [8] and eliminate the boron-rich layer formation [9]. The resulting sheet resistivity was ~ 110 Ω/□ for the boron emitter. Next, the tunnel oxide and n+ poly-Si layers were grown on the rear side according to the process described above. Then a thin Al2O3 was deposited by atomic layer deposition (ALD) and capped with PECVD SiNx film for front surface passivation and anti-reflection coating. The Ag/Al grid was screen-printed on the front, followed by a high temperature firing (~ 730 °C) in an industrial-style belt furnace to achieve good ohmic contact. Finally, ~ 1 µm thick Ag film was deposited by thermal evaporation on the entire rear side.
In order to obtain an efficiently doped n+ Si layer to maintain the quasi-Femi level splitting in c-Si (high Voc), a proper precursor PH3/SiH4 flow rate is required to deposit the doped a-Si layer. Figure 3 displays that as the PH3/SiH4 flow rate ratio (the doping level of as-deposited a-Si layer) decreases from 8.9% to 4.4%, the iVoc dramatically increases from 678 to 728 mV, and the corresponding Job’ improves from 37.2 to 4.4 fA/cm2. This is partly because less phosphorus dopant diffuses from the n+ Si layer through the tunnel oxide into the c-Si absorber, resulting in reduced Auger recombination. However, as the PH3/SiH4 flow rate ratio is further reduced from 4.4% to 1.1% (lower doping in the n+ poly-Si layer), the iVoc declines sharply from 728 to 700 mV, probably due to the reduced doping results in weaker accumulation layer and reduced quasi-Fermi level splitting in the c-Si absorber. The resulting iVoc of 728 mV and Job’ of 4.4 fA/cm2 at the optimal PH3/SiH4 ratio of 4.4% indicate that our tunnel oxide passivated contact structure on Cz Si can provide excellent interface passivation quality for solar cell application, compared to the well-known Yablonovich’s semi-insulating polysilicon (SIPOS) solar cell with of Job’ of 10 fA/cm2 [10] and Feldmann’s Job’ value of 8 fA/cm2 for the TOPCON structure [3] on float-zone (Fz) Si.
Figure 3. Implied Voc and Job’ as a function of the precursor flow ratio (PH3/SiH4). Note that the QSSPC data measured after a 875 °C/30 min anneal. Solid lines are given only as a guide to the eyes.
After establishing the optimal PH3/SiH4 flow rate ratio of 4.4% in our PECVD reactor, we studied the influence of poly-Si anneal temperature Tanneal (650 °C ≤ Tanneal ≤ 950 °C) on the passivation quality. Figure 4 shows a plot of iVocand Job’ at 1 sun as a function of Tanneal. Figure 4 shows that the anneal temperature of 650 °C does not change the passivation quality, which remains quite poor (iVoc = 645 mV) and similar to the as-deposited case. As Tanneal increases from 650 °C to 875 °C, the passivation quality improves dramatically with iVoc achieving 728 mV. Correspondingly Job’ decreases from 141.5 to 4.4 fA/cm2, suggesting that increasing Tanneal facilitates the solid-phase crystallization of the as-deposited n+ a-Si layer [11] and leads to further relaxation or defect healing in the tunnel oxide layer [12]. However, if Tanneal increases from 875 °C to 950 °C, a strong degradation in the interface passivation quality is observed, resulting in significant drop in iVoc an d increase in Job’. This is partly due to increase dopant diffusion into Si which increases Auger recombination. This also can lead to local disruption of the tunnel oxide layer, since the gaseous-phase SiO can be produced in N2 ambient according to the reaction SiO2 + Si → 2 SiO. This can result in locally or partially unpassivated Si surface where epitaxial regrowth of the Si layer might happen [13]. Therefore, the role of tunnel oxide layer in our passivated contact structure was studied in the following section.
Figure 4. Implied Voc and Job’ as a function of the anneal temperature. Note that the anneal time for each plateau temperature is 30 min. The film right after deposition (“as-deposit”) is also included for comparison purpose. Solid lines are given only as a guide to the eyes.
To investigate the quantitative impact of the tunnel oxide layer on the passivation quality of our structure, two symmetrical test structures were fabricated. One structure has tunnel oxide layer: Si(n+)/SiOx/c-Si(n)/SiOx/Si(n+) and another structure is without tunnel oxide layer: Si(n+)/c-Si(n)/Si(n+). This comparison was done with the optimal PH3/SiH4 ratio of 4.4% and the optimal Tanneal of 875 °C. Figure 5 shows the comparison of injection-dependent effective minority carrier lifetime curves for the two symmetrical test structures (with and without tunnel oxide). The injection level and iVoc at one sun is also shown for the structures. Figure 5 clearly shows that the tunnel oxide layer is crucial for achieving very high quality passivation, since the iVoc drops from 728 to 603 mV and Job’ increases from 4.4 to 1050 fA/cm2 if tunnel oxide is removed. Hence, the tunnel oxide layer plays as a crucial role in our structure to allow efficient majority carrier (electron in our case) transport while block the minority carrier (hole in our case), because it presents a 4.5 eV barrier for holes to tunnel relative to 3.1 eV for electrons. In this study a symmetrical test structure capped with just the tunnel oxide (SiOx/c-Si(n)/SiOx) was also fabricated to evaluate the passivation quality of tunnel oxide by itself. The test structure gave a very low iVoc of 653 mV and a high Job’ of 92 fA/cm2, indicating that the back surface field (BSF) induced by fixed charge in the tunnel oxide layer does not provide sufficient surface passivation.
Figure 5. Comparison of injection dependent effective minority carrier lifetime for the symmetrically passivated samples with and without the tunnel oxide layer. The figure also depicts the injection level at one sun and the corresponding iVoc and Job’.
In order to quantify the impact of tunnel oxide on cell performance, solar cells were fabricated with ion-implanted homogeneous boron emitter on the front and passivated contact on the back with and without tunnel oxide (Figure 2). Table I lists the corresponding solar cell results, which was measured at AM 1.5G, 100 mW/cm2, 25 °C, using the Fraunhofer ISE certificated 20.2% efficient large area n-type cell [14] as a reference. The highest Voc of 683 mV was achieved with the tunnel oxide passivated structure, supporting excellent rear passivation quality. The cells also showed a high average short-circuit current density Jsc of 39.5 mA/cm2 and average cell efficiency of 21.0%, with the highest of 21.2%. However, the cells without tunnel oxide layer showed very low Voc of ~ 625 mV, and efficiency of less than 19%. This is mainly due to the extremely high Job’ of ~ 1050 fA/cm2 that limits its Voc to ≤625 mV, as also indicated by the simple one-diode model equation for Si solar cells:
| @{V_{oc}} = \frac{{nkT}}{q}{\rm{ln}}\left( {\frac{{{J_{sc}}}}{{{J_{0e}} + {J_{0b}}}} + 1} \right)@ | (2) |
Figure 6. Comparison of internal quantum efficiency (IQE) and reflectance of the cell featuring rear contact structure with and without tunnel oxide layer.
| Passivated contact structure | Cells | Voc [mV] | Jsc [mA/cm2] | FF [%] | Efficiency [%] |
| with tunnel oxide | Average (4 cells) | 678.1 ± 5.3 | 39.5 ± 0.2 | 78.9± 0.8 | 21.0 ± 0.2 |
| Best | 683.4 | 39.7 | 78.1 | 21.2 | |
| without tunnel oxide | Average (3 cells) | 623.4 ± 1.9 | 38.4 ± 0.2 | 78.3 ± 0.5 | 18.6 ± 0.2 |
| Best | 625.3 | 38.5 | 78.4 | 18.8 |
DownLoad: CSVHigh-efficiency tunnel oxide passivated large area n-type front junction Si solar cells are presented. It has been shown that the passivation quality of our passivated contact scheme depends strongly on the precursor PH3/SiH4 flow rate ratio (hence the doping level of n+ Si layer) and the subsequent crystallization and dopant activation anneal temperature. Optimization of process parameters enabled an iVoc of as high as 728 mV with the corresponding Job’ value of 4.4 fA/cm2, suggesting an excellent interface passivation quality. Furthermore, an extremely high Job’ value of over 1000 fA/cm2 for the structure solely passivated by the n+ poly-Si layer reveals that the tunnel oxide layer plays a critical role to provide carrier selectivity in our studied structure. The finished cells with tunnel oxide passivated rear contact showed average cell efficiency of over 21% after screen-printed metallization on a homogeneous ion-implanted boron emitter, demonstrating the promise of this technology option for industrial production of high-efficiency Si solar cells.
The authors would like to thank Tri Manh Nguyen and John Pham from IEN of Georgia Tech for their technical support, also thanks all other R&D group members of Suniva, Inc. and UCEP of Georgia Tech for their great contributions. This work was supported by the DOE FPACE II contract DE-EE0006336 and DOE Solarmat 2 contract DE-EE0006815.
All authors declare no conflict of interest in this paper.
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Figures(3)
Fatima Al-Hashimi, Salvador J. Diaz-Cano. Multi-target analysis of neoplasms for the evaluation of tumor progression: stochastic approach of biologic processes[J]. AIMS Molecular Science, 2018, 5(1): 14-62. doi: 10.3934/molsci.2018.1.14
| Passivated contact structure | Cells | Voc [mV] | Jsc [mA/cm2] | FF [%] | Efficiency [%] |
| with tunnel oxide | Average (4 cells) | 678.1 ± 5.3 | 39.5 ± 0.2 | 78.9± 0.8 | 21.0 ± 0.2 |
| Best | 683.4 | 39.7 | 78.1 | 21.2 | |
| without tunnel oxide | Average (3 cells) | 623.4 ± 1.9 | 38.4 ± 0.2 | 78.3 ± 0.5 | 18.6 ± 0.2 |
| Best | 625.3 | 38.5 | 78.4 | 18.8 |
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