Review Topical Sections

Foodborne pathogens

  • Received: 13 March 2017 Accepted: 19 June 2017 Published: 29 June 2017
  • Foodborne pathogens are causing a great number of diseases with significant effects on human health and economy. The characteristics of the most common pathogenic bacteria (Bacillus cereus, Campylobacter jejuni, Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium perfringens, Cronobacter sakazakii, Esherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., Staphylococccus aureus, Vibrio spp. and Yersinia enterocolitica), viruses (Hepatitis A and Noroviruses) and parasites (Cyclospora cayetanensis, Toxoplasma gondii and Trichinella spiralis), together with some important outbreaks, are reviewed. Food safety management systems based on to classical hazard-based approach has been proved to be inefficient, and risk-based food safety approach is now suggested from leading researchers and organizations. In this context, a food safety management system should be designed in a way to estimate the risks to human health from food consumption and to identify, select and implement mitigation strategies in order to control and reduce these risks. In addition, the application of suitable food safety education programs for all involved people in the production and consumption of foods is suggested.

    Citation: Thomas Bintsis. Foodborne pathogens[J]. AIMS Microbiology, 2017, 3(3): 529-563. doi: 10.3934/microbiol.2017.3.529

    Related Papers:

  • Foodborne pathogens are causing a great number of diseases with significant effects on human health and economy. The characteristics of the most common pathogenic bacteria (Bacillus cereus, Campylobacter jejuni, Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium perfringens, Cronobacter sakazakii, Esherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., Staphylococccus aureus, Vibrio spp. and Yersinia enterocolitica), viruses (Hepatitis A and Noroviruses) and parasites (Cyclospora cayetanensis, Toxoplasma gondii and Trichinella spiralis), together with some important outbreaks, are reviewed. Food safety management systems based on to classical hazard-based approach has been proved to be inefficient, and risk-based food safety approach is now suggested from leading researchers and organizations. In this context, a food safety management system should be designed in a way to estimate the risks to human health from food consumption and to identify, select and implement mitigation strategies in order to control and reduce these risks. In addition, the application of suitable food safety education programs for all involved people in the production and consumption of foods is suggested.


    加载中
    [1] Hutt PB, Hutt PB II (1984) A history of government regulation of adulteration and misbranding of food. Food Drug Cosm Law J 39: 2–73.
    [2] CDC, What is a foodborne disease outbreak and why do they occur, 2012. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/foodsafety/facts.html#whatisanoutbreak.
    [3] Mead PS, Slutsker L, Dietz V, et al. (1999) Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis 5: 607–625. doi: 10.3201/eid0505.990502
    [4] EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) and ECDC (European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control) (2016) The European Union summary report on trends and sources of zoonoses, zoonotic agents and food-borne outbreaks in 2015. EFSA J 14: 4634–4865.
    [5] FDA, Bad Bug Book, Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins, Second Edition, 2012. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodborneIllnessContaminants/CausesOfIllnessBadBugBook/.
    [6] IFT (2004) Bacteria associated with foodborne diseases. Institute of food technologists-Scientific Status Summary. August 2004: 1–25.
    [7] Bacon RT, Sofos JN (2003) Characteristics of Biological Hazards in Foods, In: Schmidt RH, Rodrick GE, Editors, Food Safety Handbook, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 157–195.
    [8] Rajkowski KT, Smith JL (2001) Update: Food Poisoning and Other Diseases Induced by Bacillus cereus, In: Hui YH, Pierson MD, Gorham JR, Editors, Foodborne Disease Handbook, New York: Markel Dekker, Inc., 61–76.
    [9] Andersson A, Rönner U, Granum PE (1995) What problems does the food industry have with the spore-forming pathogens Bacillus cereus and Clostridium perfringens? Int J Food Microbiol 28: 145–155. doi: 10.1016/0168-1605(95)00053-4
    [10] ICMSF (1996) Micro-organisms in Foods 5, Characteristics of Microbial Pathogens, New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
    [11] Arnesen LPS, Fagerlund A, Granum PE (2008) From soil to gut: Bacillus cereus and its food poisoning toxins. FEMS Microbiol Rev 32: 579–606. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2008.00112.x
    [12] NCBI, National Centre for Biotechnology Information, 2017. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome.
    [13] Scallan E, Hoekstra RM, Angulo FJ, et al. (2011) Foodborne illness acquired in the United States -major pathogens. Emerg Infect Dis 17: 7–15. doi: 10.3201/eid1701.P11101
    [14] Scallan E, Griffin PM, Angulo FJ, et al. (2011) Foodborne illness acquired in the United States-unspecified agents. Emerg Infect Dis 17: 16–22. doi: 10.3201/eid1701.P21101
    [15] Bennett SD, Walsh KA, Gould LH (2013) Foodborne disease outbreaks caused by Bacillus cereus, Clostridium perfringens, and Staphylococcus aureus-United States, 1998–2008. Clin Infect Dis 57: 425–433. doi: 10.1093/cid/cit244
    [16] Martinelli D, Fortunato F, Tafuri S, et al. (2013) Lessons learnt from a birthday party: a Bacillus cereus outbreak, Bari, Italy, January 2012. Ann 1st Super Sanità 49: 391–394.
    [17] Wijnands LM, Bacillus cereus associated food borne disease: quantitative aspects of exposure assessment and hazard characterization, Dissertation, Wageningen University, 2008. Available at: http://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/wurpubs/366677.
    [18] Naranjo M, Denayer S, Botteldoorn N, et al. (2011) Sudden death of a young adult associated with Bacillus cereus food poisoning. J Clin Microb 49: 4379–4381. doi: 10.1128/JCM.05129-11
    [19] Dierick K, Coillie EV, Swiecicka I, et al. (2005) Fatal family outbreak of Bacillus cereus-associated food poisoning. J Clin Microbiol 43: 4277–4279. doi: 10.1128/JCM.43.8.4277-4279.2005
    [20] Humphrey T, O'Brien S, Madsen M (2007) Campylobacters as zoonotic pathogens: A food production perspective. Int J Food Microbiol 117: 237–257. doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.01.006
    [21] Schaffner N, Zumstein J, Parriaux A (2004) Factors influencing the bacteriological water quality in mountainous surface and groundwaters. Acta Hydroch Hydrob 32: 225–234. doi: 10.1002/aheh.200300532
    [22] Sean F, Altekruse SF, Stern NJ, et al. (1999) Campylobacter jejuni-An emerging foodborne pathogen. Emerg Infect Dis 5: 28–35. doi: 10.3201/eid0501.990104
    [23] Stern N, Jones D, Wesley I, et al. (1994) Colonization of chicks by non-culturable Campylobacter spp. Lett Appl Microbiol 18: 333–336. doi: 10.1111/j.1472-765X.1994.tb00882.x
    [24] Lahti E, Löfdahl M, Agren J, et al. (2017) Confirmation of a Campylobacteriosis outbreak associated with chicken liver pâtè using PFGE and WGS. Zoon Public Health 64: 14–20. doi: 10.1111/zph.12272
    [25] Abid MH, Wimalarathna J, Mills L, et al. (2013) Duck liver-associated outbreak of Campylobacteriosis among humans, United Kingdom, 2011. Emerg Infect Dis 19: 1310–1313. doi: 10.3201/eid1908.121535
    [26] Edwards DS, Milne LM, Morrow K, et al. (2013) Campylobacteriosis outbreak associated with consumption of undercooked chicken liver pâte in the East of England, September 2011: identification of a dose-response risk. Epidemiol Infect 142: 352–357.
    [27] Farmer S, Keenan A, Vivancos R (2012) Food-borne Campylobacter outbreak in Liverpool associated with cross contamination from chicken liver parfait: Implications for investigation of similar outbreaks. Public Health 126: 657–659. doi: 10.1016/j.puhe.2012.02.004
    [28] Forbes KJ, Gormley FJ, Dallas JF, et al. (2009) Campylobacter immunity and coinfection following a large outbreak in a farming community. J Clin Microbiol 47: 111–116. doi: 10.1128/JCM.01731-08
    [29] Inns T, Foster K, Gorton R (2010) Cohort study of a Campylobacteriosis outbreak associated with chicken liver parfait, United Kingdom, June 2010. Euro Surveill 15: 19704.
    [30] CDC (2013) Multistate outbreak of Campylobacter jejuni infections associated with undercooked chicken livers-northeastern United States, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. MMWR 62: 874–876.
    [31] Franco DA, Williams CE (2001) Campylobacter jejuni, In: Hui YH, Pierson MD, Gorham JR, Editors, Foodborne Disease Handbook, New York: Markel Dekker, Inc., 83–105.
    [32] Moffatt CRM, Greig A, Valcanis M, et al. (2016) A large outbreak of Campylobacter jejuni infection in a university college caused by chicken liver pâté, Australia, 2013. Epidemiol Infect 144: 2971–2978. doi: 10.1017/S0950268816001187
    [33] Carter AT, Peck MW (2015) Genomes, neurotoxins and biology of Clostridium botulinum Group I and Group II. Res Microbiol 166: 303–317. doi: 10.1016/j.resmic.2014.10.010
    [34] Juliao PC, Maslanka S, Dykes J, et al. (2013) National outbreak of type A foodborne botulism associated with a widely distributed commercially canned hot dog chili sauce. Clin Infect Dis 56: 376–382. doi: 10.1093/cid/cis901
    [35] Marshall KM, Nowaczyk L, Raphael BH, et al. (2014) Identification and genetic characterization of Clostridium botulinum serotype A strains from commercially pasteurized carrot juice. Food Microbiol 44: 149–155. doi: 10.1016/j.fm.2014.05.009
    [36] King LA (2008) Two severe cases of bolulism associated with industrially produced chicken enchiladas, France, August 2008. Euro Surveillance 13: 2418–2424. Available from: http://www.eurosurveillance.org/ViewArticle.aspx?ArticleId=18978.
    [37] Grass JE, Gould LH, Mahon BE (2013) Epidemiology of foodborne disease outbreaks caused by Clostridium perfringens, United States, 1998–2010. Foodborne Pathog Dis 10: 131–136. doi: 10.1089/fpd.2012.1316
    [38] Acheson P, Bell V, Gibson J, et al. (2016) Enforcement of science-using a Clostridium perfringens outbreak investigation to take legal action. J Public Health 38: 511–515. doi: 10.1093/pubmed/fdv060
    [39] Jaradat ZW, Mousa WA, Elbetieha A, et al. (2014) Cronobacter spp.-opportunistic food-borne pathogens. A review of their virulence and environmental-adaptive traits. J Med Microbiol 63: 1023–1037.
    [40] Healy B, Cooney S, O'Brien S, et al. (2010) Cronobacter (Enterobacter sakazakii): An opportunistic foodborne pathogen. Foodborne Path Dis 7: 339–350. doi: 10.1089/fpd.2009.0379
    [41] Kandhai MC, Reij MW, van Puyvelde K, et al. (2004) A new protocol for the detection of Enterobacter sakazakii applied to environmental samples. J Food Protect 67: 1267–1270. doi: 10.4315/0362-028X-67.6.1267
    [42] Hochel I, Rüzicková H, Krásny L, et al. (2012) Occurence of Cronobacter spp. in retail foods. J Appl Microbiol 112: 1257–1265. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2012.05292.x
    [43] Mitscherlich E, Marth EH (1984) Microbial Survival in the Environment: Bacteria and Rickettsiae Important in Human and Animal Health, Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
    [44] Garcia A, Fox JG, Besser TE (2010) Zoonotic enterohemorrhagic Eschericia coli: A one health perspective. ILAR J 51: 221–232. doi: 10.1093/ilar.51.3.221
    [45] Croxen MA, Law RJ, Scholz R, et al. (2013) Recent advances in understanding enteric pathogenic Escherichia coli. Clin Microbiol Rev 26: 822–880. doi: 10.1128/CMR.00022-13
    [46] Wells JG, Davis BR, Wachsmuth IK, et al. (1983) Laboratory investigation of hemorrhagic colitis outbreaks associated with a rare Escherichia coli serotype. J Clin Microbiol 18: 512–520.
    [47] Armstrong GL, Hollingsworth J, Morris JG (1996) Emerging foodborne pathogens: Escherichia coli O157:H7 as a model of entry of a new pathogen into the food supply of the developed world Epidemiol Rev 18: 29–51.
    [48] Rasko DA, Webster DR, Sahl JW, et al. (2011) Origins of the E. coli strain causing an outbreak of hemolytic-uremic syndrome in Germany. New Engl J Med 365: 709–717.
    [49] Blaser MJ (2011) Deconstructing a lethal foodborne epidemic. New Engl J Med 365: 1835–1836. doi: 10.1056/NEJMe1110896
    [50] Frank C, Faber MS, Askar M, et al. (2011) Large and ongoing outbreak of haemolytic uraemic syndrome, Germany, May 2011. Euro Surveill 16: S1–S3.
    [51] CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) (1993) Update: Multistate outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections from hamburgers-western United States, 1992–1993. MMWR 42: 258–263.
    [52] FSIS (Food Safety and Inspection Service), Guidance for minimizing the risk of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella in beef slaughter operations, 2002. Available from: http://www.haccpalliance.org/sub/food-safety/BeefSlauterGuide.pdf.
    [53] CDC (2006) Ongoing multistate outbreak of Escherichia coli serotype O157:H7 infections associated with consumption of fresh spinach-United States, September 2006. MMWR 55: 1045–1046.
    [54] Weise E, Schmit J (2007) Spinach recall: 5 faces. 5 agonizing deaths. 1 year later. USA Today: 24.
    [55] Jay MT, Colley M, Carychao D, et al. (2007) Escherichia coli O157:H7 in feral swine near spinach fields and cattle, central California coast. Emerg Infect Dis 13: 1908–1911. doi: 10.3201/eid1312.070763
    [56] Berger CN, Sodha SV, Shaw RK, et al. (2010) Fresh fruit and vegetables as vehicles for the transmission of human pathogens. Environ Microbiol 12: 2385–2397. doi: 10.1111/j.1462-2920.2010.02297.x
    [57] Frank C, Werber D, Cramer JP, et al. (2011b) Epidemic profile of shiga-toxin-producing Escherichia coli O104:H4 outbreak in Germany. New Engl J Med 365: 1771–1780.
    [58] Kupferschmidt K (2011) As E. coli outbreak recedes, new questions come to the fore. Science 33: 27.
    [59] EFSA (2011) Technical report: Tracing seeds, in particular fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) seeds, in relation to the shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) O104:H4 2011 outbreaks in Germany and France. EFSA Supporting Publications 8: 176.
    [60] EFSA (2011) Scientific report of the EFSA: Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) O104:H4 2011 outbreaks in Europe: Taking stock. EFSA J 9: 2390–2412.
    [61] CDC (2016) Multistate outbreak of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli infections linked to flour. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/ecoli/2016/o121-06-16/index.html.
    [62] Zhang G, Ma L, Patel N, et al. (2007) Isolation of Salmonella typhimurium from outbreak-associated cake mix. J Food Protect 70: 997–1001. doi: 10.4315/0362-028X-70.4.997
    [63] Buchanan RL, Goris LGM, Hayman MM, et al. (2017) A review of Listeria monocytogenes: An update on outbreaks, virulence, dose-response, ecology, and risk assessments. Food Control 75: 1–13. doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.12.016
    [64] Jemmi T, Stephen R (2006) Listeria monocytogenes: food-borne pathogen and hygiene indicator. Rev Sci Tech 25: 571–580. doi: 10.20506/rst.25.2.1681
    [65] Ghandhi M, Chikindas ML (2007) Listeria: A foodborne pathogen that knows how to survive. Int J Food Microbiol 113: 1–15. doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2006.07.008
    [66] Ferreira V, Wiedmann M, Teixaira P, et al. (2014) Listeria monocytogenes persistence in food-associated environments: Epidemiology, strain characteristics, and implications for public health. J Food Protect 77: 150–170. doi: 10.4315/0362-028X.JFP-13-150
    [67] Angelo KM, Conrad AR, Saupe A, et al. (2017) Multistate outbreak of Listeria monocytogenes infections linked to whole apples used in commercially produced, prepackaged caramel apples: United States, 2014–2015. Epidemiol Infect: 145: 848–856. doi: 10.1017/S0950268816003083
    [68] Raheem D (2016) Outbreaks of listeriosis associated with deli meats and cheese: an overview. AIMS Microbiol 2: 230–250. doi: 10.3934/microbiol.2016.3.230
    [69] FDA, Environmental Assessment: Factors Potentially Contributing to the Contamination of Fresh Whole Cantaloupe Implicated in a Multi-State Outbreak of Listeriosis, 2011. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/Food/RecallsOutbreaksEmergencies/Outbreaks/ucm276247.htm.
    [70] CDC, Multistate Outbreak of Salmonella Bareilly and Salmonella Nchanga Infections Associated with a Raw Scraped Ground Tuna Product (Final Update), 2012. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/salmonella/bareilly-04-12/.
    [71] Hennessy TW, Hedberg CW, Slutsker L, et al. (1996) A national outbreak of Salmonella enteritidis infections from ice cream. New Engl J Med 334: 1281–1286. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199605163342001
    [72] Cavallaro E, Date K, Medus C, et al. (2011) Salmonella Typhimurium infections associated with peanut products. New Engl J Med 365: 601–610. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1011208
    [73] Maki DG (2009) Coming to grips with foodborne infection-peanut butter, peppers, and nationwide Salmonella outbreaks. New Engl J Med 360: 949–953. doi: 10.1056/NEJMp0806575
    [74] Penteado AL, Eblen BS, Miller AJ (2004) Evidence of salmonella internalization into fresh mangos during simulated postharvest insect disinfestation procedures. J Food Protect 67: 181–184. doi: 10.4315/0362-028X-67.1.181
    [75] Sivapalasingam SE, Barrett A, Kimura S, et al. (2003) A multistate outbreak of Salmonella enterica serotype newport infection linked to mango consumption: Impact of water-dip disinfestation technology. Clin Infect Dis 37: 1585–1590. doi: 10.1086/379710
    [76] Laufer AS, Grass J, Holt K, et al. (2015) Outbreaks of Salmonella infections attributed to beef-United States, 1973–2011. Epidemiol Infect 143: 2003–2013. doi: 10.1017/S0950268814003112
    [77] Fonteneau L, Da Silva NJ, Fabre L (2017) Multinational outbreak of travel-related Salmonella Chester infections in Europe, summers 2014 and 2015. Eurosurveill 22: 1–11.
    [78] O'Grady KA, Krause V (1999) An outbreak of salmonellosis linked to a marine turtle. Headache 30: 324–327.
    [79] Group OFW (2006) OzFoodNet: enhancing foodborne disease surveillance across Australia: quarterly report, 1 October to 31 December 2005.Commun Dis Intell Q Rep 30: 148–153.
    [80] CDC (2013) Multistate outbreak of Salmonella chester infections associated with frozen meals -18 states. MMWR 62: 979–982.
    [81] Taylor J, Galanis E, Wilcott L, et al. (2012) Salmonella chester outbreak investigation team. An outbreak of salmonella chester infection in Canada: rare serotype, uncommon exposure, and unusual population demographic facilitate rapid identification of food vehicle. J Food Protect 75: 738–742.
    [82] Vargas M, Gascon J, De Anta MTJ, et al (1999) Prevalence of Shigella enterotoxins 1 and 2 among Shigella strains isolated from patients with traveler's diarrhea. J Clin Microbiol 37: 3608–3611.
    [83] Hedberg CW, Levine WC, White KE, et al. (1992) An international foodborne outbreak of Shigellosis associated with a commercial airline. JAMA 268: 3208–3212. doi: 10.1001/jama.1992.03490220052027
    [84] CDC (1999) Outbreaks of Shigella sonnei Infection Associated with Eating Fresh Parsley-United States and Canada, July-August 1998. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00056895.htm.
    [85] Mossel DAA, Corry JE, Struijk CB, et al. (1995) Essentials of the microbiology of foods. A textbook for advanced studies, Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, 146–150.
    [86] Kaper JB, Morris JG, Levine MM (1995) Cholera. Clin Microbiol Rev 8: 48–86.
    [87] Janda JM, Brenden R, De Benedetti JA, et al. (1988) Current perspectives on the epidemiology and pathogenesis of clinically significant Vibrio spp. Clin Microbiol Rev 1: 245–267. doi: 10.1128/CMR.1.3.245
    [88] Wu Y, Wen J, Ma Y, et al. (2014) Epidemiology of foodborne disease outbreaks caused by Vibrio parahaemolyticus, China, 2003–2008. Food Control 46: 197–202. doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2014.05.023
    [89] Ma C, Deng X, Ke C, et al. (2013) Epidemiology and etiology characteristics of foodborne outbreaks caused by Vibrio parahaemolyticus during 2008–2010 in Guangdong Province, China. Foodborne Pathog Dis 11: 21–29.
    [90] Chen J, Zhang R, Qi X, et al. (2017) Epidemiology of foodborne disease outbreaks caused by Vibrio parahaemolyticus during 2010–2014 in Zhejuang Province, China. Food Control 77: 110–115. doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2017.02.004
    [91] Cary JW, Linz JE, Bhatnagar D (2000) Microbial Foodborne Diseases: Mechanisms of Pathogenesis and Toxin Synthesis, Lancaster: Technomic Publishing Co, Inc.
    [92] Longenberger AH, Gronostaj MP, Yee GY, et al. (2014) Yersinia enterocolitica infections associated with improperly pasteurized milk products: southwest Pennsylvania, March–August, 2011. Epidemiol Infect 142: 1640–1650. doi: 10.1017/S0950268813002616
    [93] Konishi N, Ishitsuka R, Yokoyama K, et al. (2016) Two outbreaks of Yersinia enterocolitica O:8 infections in Tokyo and the characterization of isolates. J Japan Assoc Infect Dis 90: 66–72.
    [94] Grohman GS, Murphy AM, Christopher PJ, et al. (1981) Norwalk virus gastroenteritis in volunteers consuming depurated oysters. Aust J Exp Biol Med Sci 59: 219–228. doi: 10.1038/icb.1981.17
    [95] Power UF, Collins JK (1989) Differential depuration of polivirus, Escherichia coli, and a coliphage by the common mussel, Mytilus edulis. Appl Environ Microbiol 55: 1386–1390.
    [96] Digirolamo R, Liston J, Matches JR (1970) Survival of virus in chilled, frozen, and processed oysters. Appl Environ Microbiol 20: 58–63.
    [97] Cuthbert JA (2001) Hepatitis A: Old and new. Clin Microbiol Rev 14: 38–58. doi: 10.1128/CMR.14.1.38-58.2001
    [98] Halliday ML, Lai LY, Zhou TK, et al. (1991) An epidemic of Hepatitis A attributable to the ingestion of raw clams in Shanghai, China. J Infect Dis 164: 852–859. doi: 10.1093/infdis/164.5.852
    [99] Koff RS, Grady GF, Chalmers TC, et al. (1967) Viral Hepatitis in a group of Boston hospitals-Importance of exposure to shellfish in a nonepidemic period. New Engl J Med 276: 703–710. doi: 10.1056/NEJM196703302761301
    [100] Wait DA, Sobsey MD (1983) Method for recovery of enteric viruses from estuarine sediments with chaotropic agents. Appl Environ Microbiol 46: 379–385.
    [101] CDC (2003) Hepatitis A outbreak associated with green onions at a restaurant-Monaca, Pennsylvania, 2003. MMWR 52: 1155–1157.
    [102] Chiapponi C, Pavoni E, Bertasi B, et al. (2014) Isolation and genomic sequence of hepatitis A virus from mixed frozen berries in Italy. Food Environ Virol 6: 202–206. doi: 10.1007/s12560-014-9149-1
    [103] Montano-Remacha C, Ricotta L, Alfonsi V, et al. (2014) Hepatitis A outbreak in Italy, 2013: a matched case-control study. Euro Surveill 19: 20906. doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES2014.19.37.20906
    [104] Blackwell JH, Cliver DO, Callis JJ, et al. (1985) Foodborne viruses: Their importance and need for research. J Food Protect 48: 717–723. doi: 10.4315/0362-028X-48.8.717
    [105] WHO (2015) WHO estimates of the global burden of foodborne diseases. Geneva.
    [106] Iturriza-Gomara M, O'Brien SJ (2016) Foodborne viral infections. Curr Opin Infect Dis 29: 495–501. doi: 10.1097/QCO.0000000000000299
    [107] Estes MK, Prasad BV, Atmar RL (2006) Noroviruses everywhere: Has something changed? Curr Opin Infect Dis 19: 467–474.
    [108] Glass RI, Parashar UD, Estes MK (2009) Norovirus gastroenteritis. New Engl J Med 361: 1776–1785. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra0804575
    [109] Verhoef L, Kouyos RD, Vennema H, et al. (2011) An integrated approach to identifying international foodborne norovirus outbreaks. Emerg Infect Dis 17: 412–418. doi: 10.3201/eid1703.100979
    [110] Koopmans M (2008) Progress in understanding norovirus epidemiology. Curr Opin Infect Dis 21: 544–552.
    [111] McCarter YS (2009) Infectious disease outbreaks on cruise ships. Clin Microbiol Newsl 31: 161–168. doi: 10.1016/j.clinmicnews.2009.10.001
    [112] Desai R, Yen C, Wikswo M, et al. (2011) Transmission of norovirus among NBA players and staff, Winter 2010–2011. Clin Infect Dis 53: 1115–1117. doi: 10.1093/cid/cir682
    [113] Iritani N, Kaida A, Abe N, et al. (2014) Detection and genetic characterization of human enteric viruses in oyster-associated gastroenteritis outbreaks between 2001 and 2012 in Osaka City, Japan. J Med Virol 86: 2019–2025. doi: 10.1002/jmv.23883
    [114] Müller L, Schultz AC, Fonager J, et al. (2015) Separate norovirus outbreaks linked to one source of imported frozen raspberries by molecular analysis, Denmark, 2010–2011. Epidemiol Infect 143: 2299–2307. doi: 10.1017/S0950268814003409
    [115] Tuladhar E, Hazeleger WC, Koopmans M, et al. (2015) Reducing viral contamination from finger pads: handwashing is more effective than alcohol-based hand disinfectants. J Hosp Infect 90: 226–234. doi: 10.1016/j.jhin.2015.02.019
    [116] Ionidis G, Hubscher J, Jack T, et al. (2016) Development and virucidal activity of a novel alcohol-based hand disinfectant supplemented with urea and citric acid. BMC Infect Dis 16: 77. doi: 10.1186/s12879-016-1410-9
    [117] Iturriza-Gomara M, O'Brien SJ (2016) Foodborne viral infections. Curr Opin Infect Dis 29: 495–501. doi: 10.1097/QCO.0000000000000299
    [118] Murray CJL, Vos T, Lozano R, et al. (2012) Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions, 1990–2010: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2010. Lancet 380: 2197–2223. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61689-4
    [119] Tauxe RV (2002) Emerging foodborne pathogens. Int J Food Microbiol 78: 31–41. doi: 10.1016/S0168-1605(02)00232-5
    [120] CDC , Global diahrrea burden, 2015. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/global/diarrhea-burden.html/.
    [121] JenniferY, Huang MPH, Olga L, et al. (2016) Infection with pathogens transmitted commonly through food and the effect of increasing use of culture-independent diagnostic tests on surveillance-Foodborne diseases active surveillance network, 10 U.S. Sites, 2012–2015. MMWR 65: 368–371.
    [122] Scharff RL (2012) Economic burden from health losses due to foodborne illness in the United States. J Food Protect 75: 123–131. doi: 10.4315/0362-028X.JFP-11-058
    [123] Flynn D, Germany's E. coli outbreak most costly in history, Food safety news, 2011. Available from: http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2011/06/europes-o104-outbreak-most-costly-in-history/.
    [124] Hussain MA, Dawson CO (2013) Economic impact of food safety outbreaks on food businesses. Foods 2: 585–589. doi: 10.3390/foods2040585
    [125] Bergholz TM, Switt AIM, Wiedmann M (2014) Omics approaches in food safety: fulfilling the promise? Trends Microbiol 22: 275–281. doi: 10.1016/j.tim.2014.01.006
    [126] Sauders BD, Mangione K, Vincent C, et al. (2004) Distribution of Listeria monocytogenes molecular subtypes among human and food isolates from New York State shows persistence of human disease-associated Listeria monocytogenes strains in retail environments. J Food Protect 67: 1417–1428. doi: 10.4315/0362-028X-67.7.1417
    [127] Velge P, Cloeckaert A, Barrow P (2005) Emergence of Salmonella epidemics: the problems related to Salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis and multiple antibiotic resistance in other major serotypes. Vet Res 36: 267–288. doi: 10.1051/vetres:2005005
    [128] Lianou A, Koutsoumanis KP (2013) Strain variability of the behavior of foodborne bacterial pathogens: A review. Int J Food Microbiol 167: 310–321. doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.09.016
    [129] Velge P, Roche SM (2010) Variability of Listeria monocytogenes virulence: a result of the evolution between saprophytism and virulence? Future Microbiol 5: 1799–1821. doi: 10.2217/fmb.10.134
    [130] Yeni F, Yavas S, Alpas H, et al. (2016) Most common foodborne pathogens and mycotoxins on fresh produce: A review of recent outbreaks. Crit Rev Food Sci 56: 1532–1544. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2013.777021
    [131] Barlow SM, Boobis AR, Bridges J, et al. (2015) The role of hazard- and risk-based approaches in ensuring food safety. Trends Food Sci Technol 46: 176–188. doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2015.10.007
    [132] Koutsoumanis KP, Aspridou Z (2015) Moving towards a risk-based food safety management. Curr Opin Food Sci 12: 36–41.
    [133] CAC (1999) CAC/GL-30: Principles and Guidelines for the Conduct of Microbiological Risk Assessment. Codex Alimentarius Commission.
    [134] Van de Venter T (2000) Emerging food-borne diseases: a global responsibility. Food Nutr Agr 26: 4–13.
  • Reader Comments
  • © 2017 the Author(s), licensee AIMS Press. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)
通讯作者: 陈斌, bchen63@163.com
  • 1. 

    沈阳化工大学材料科学与工程学院 沈阳 110142

  1. 本站搜索
  2. 百度学术搜索
  3. 万方数据库搜索
  4. CNKI搜索

Metrics

Article views(27000) PDF downloads(3021) Cited by(529)

Article outline

Figures and Tables

Tables(2)

Other Articles By Authors

/

DownLoad:  Full-Size Img  PowerPoint
Return
Return

Catalog