Figure 1.
Map of the study area showing the position of sampling sites in the Sfax coastal area (Tunisia, Gulf of Gabès) Characteristics of stations are detailed in Table S1.
Citation: Priscilla B.S. Albuquerque, Luana C.B.B. Coelho, José A. Teixeira, Maria G. Carneiro-da-Cunha. Approaches in biotechnological applications of natural polymers[J]. AIMS Molecular Science, 2016, 3(3): 386-425. doi: 10.3934/molsci.2016.3.386
| [1] | Jerry R. Miller . Potential ecological impacts of trace metals on aquatic biota within the Upper Little Tennessee River Basin, North Carolina. AIMS Environmental Science, 2016, 3(3): 305-325. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2016.3.305 |
| [2] | Joseph A. Kazery, Dayakar P. Nittala, H. Anwar Ahmad . Meteorological effects on trace element solubility in Mississippi coastal wetlands. AIMS Environmental Science, 2019, 6(1): 1-13. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2019.1.1 |
| [3] | Rafiquel Islam, Sazal Kumar, Aminur Rahman, Joyonto Karmoker, Samrat Ali, Sakinul Islam, Md. Saiful Islam . Trace metals concentration in vegetables of a sub-urban industrial area of Bangladesh and associated health risk assessment. AIMS Environmental Science, 2018, 5(3): 130-142. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2018.3.130 |
| [4] | Hamdy E. Nour, Fatma Ramadan, Nouf El Shammari, Mohamed Tawfik . Status and contamination assessment of heavy metals pollution in coastal sediments, southern Kuwait. AIMS Environmental Science, 2022, 9(4): 538-552. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2022032 |
| [5] | Emitt C. Witt III . Use of lidar point cloud data to support estimation of residual trace metals stored in mine chat piles in the Old Lead Belt of southeastern, Missouri. AIMS Environmental Science, 2016, 3(3): 509-524. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2016.3.509 |
| [6] | Gireshsingh Mungla, Sunita Facknath, Bhanooduth Lalljee . Assessing the Potential of Mechanical Aeration Combined with Bioremediation Process in Soils and Coastal Sediments Impacted by Heavy Metals. AIMS Environmental Science, 2022, 9(5): 692-707. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2022039 |
| [7] | Samia Bouazza, Zoubida Benmamoun, Hanaa Hachimi . Strategic Analysis of Hub Port Competitiveness in the Mediterranean and Northern Europe: A Focus on Sustainability and Efficiency. AIMS Environmental Science, 2024, 11(2): 184-220. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2024010 |
| [8] | Jon Knight, Pat Dale, Patrick Dwyer, Sam Marx . A conceptual approach to integrate management of ecosystem service and disservice in coastal wetlands. AIMS Environmental Science, 2017, 4(3): 431-442. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2017.3.431 |
| [9] | Hedi Januar, Dwiyitno, Izhamil Hidayah, Irma Hermana . Seasonal heavy metals accumulation in the soft tissue of Anadara granosa mollusc form Tanjung Balai, Indonesia. AIMS Environmental Science, 2019, 6(5): 356-366. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2019.5.356 |
| [10] | Maryem EL FAHEM, Abdellah BENZAOUAK, Habiba ZOUITEN, Amal SERGHINI, Mohamed FEKHAOUI . Hydrogeochemical assessment of mine water discharges from mining activity. Case of the Haut Beht mine (central Morocco). AIMS Environmental Science, 2021, 8(1): 60-85. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2021005 |
Marine coastal areas, which represent high value eco-socio-systems, are sites of discharge and accumulation of anthropogenic compounds, such as trace metals. Trace metals may enter marine waters through rivers, effluents, runoff, and from the atmosphere [1]. In seawater, trace metals have a strong affinity for particulate organic matter or clay mineral that tend to accumulate in bottom sediments [2,3]. However, some metals which have bound to the sediment can be remobilized and released back into the water column via hydrodynamics, biogeochemical processes and anthropogenic activities [4]. Due to their physico-chemical properties, trace metals exhibit different affinities for the various solid-phase fractions of the sediment (easily exchangeable ions, metal carbonates oxides, sulfides, organo-metallic compounds, ions in crystal lattices of minerals, etc.), which influence their transfer and bioavailability toward the water column [5,6]. Thus, in shallow coastal systems, the dynamics of trace metals could be influenced by the interactions between water column and sediment.
The Gulf of Gabès (Tunisia), assigned as an eco-region within the Mediterranean Sea, is characterized by shallow waters, strong tides, and high phytoplankton blooms [7] with surface chlorophyll concentration exceeding 1.1 mg m−3 [8]. However, pressure due to the development of anthropogenic activities in this area has led to the deterioration of biodiversity, the loss of about 90% of marine vegetation and the widespread siltation [9]. Inputs from industrial activities may modify the mobilization-remobilization of deposited metals, increasing the availability for their uptake by phytoplankton and consequently their transfer within food webs [10].
Many studies have been conducted to determine the impact of anthropogenic discharges on coastal ecosystems in the Gulf of Gabès. However, no study has focused on the dynamics of trace metals so far. Some works have reported metal concentrations in superficial sediments and assessed the quality of the marine ecosystem according to geochemical indexes [11,12,13,14]. Nevertheless, there is a surprising lack of information on both the distribution of trace metals in the water column and mobilization-remobilization processes. Even so, the use of monitoring data is necessary for any environmental management plan aiming to reduce pollution risks and improve natural resource quality.
In this context, the objective of the present study was to better understand the local dynamics of trace metals to assess the consequences of anthropogenic activities in the shallow coastal ecosystem of the Gulf of Gabès. Firstly, we investigated the spatial distribution of trace metals concentrations and associated geochemical indexes in surficial sediments. Then, we assessed the mobility of sediment-bound metals using a sequential extraction procedure. Finally, we evaluated the potential sources of target elements in surface waters using a multivariate statistical approach.
The Gulf of Gabès is located in the southeast of Tunisia (northern Africa) and includes the islands of Kerkennah and Djerba located in the north and south part of the Gulf, respectively (Figure 1). The Gulf of Gabès is characterized by a shallow basin which is 100 km long and 100 km wide. Due to a very low continental slope, bathymetry does not exceed 10 m over several kilometers. This particular feature leads to the highest tides of the Mediterranean Sea, with maximum amplitude of 2.3 m [15,16]. In this area, sediments are rich in organic matter and release large quantities of nutrients allowing the extensive development of marine plants which may serve as nurseries for numerous marine organisms [17,18]. The Gulf of Gabès is known to be highly productive and accounts for 65% of Tunisian fishing activity [8,19,20].
Sfax city (34°43'N, 10°46'E; Figure 1) is Tunisia's second economic pole with a population of 956,000 inhabitants living around the commercial and fishing harbors. Industrialized activities include phosphate processing plants, salt works, tanneries, soap factories, textiles and a lead foundry [21]. Large amounts of metals are introduced into the Sfax coastal environment through rivers, wadis, wild landfills, municipal sewage effluents and industrial wastewaters [11,22,23]. The northern coast, which extends from the commercial harbor and beyond, receives rainwater inputs from the PK4 channel and urban/industrial outlets from the Ezzit wadi (Figure 1) In this area, the beaches have been rehabilitated via the "Taparura" project launched in 2006. The littoral zone was dredged to remove 450,000 m3 of contaminated sediments up to the isobath 1.5 m [24]. The southern coast extends from the commercial harbor to the southern boundary of the Salinas (Figure 1) Many industries release their leaching waters into the coastal zone via channels joining the El Hakmouni wadi [23,25,26]. Tidal and coastal currents affect transport and deposition of particles along the coast. In the inter-tidal zone, sediments are sandy-muddy and have a black or white color due to petroleum or phosphogypsum. The impact of these anthropogenic pressures can be observed in summer with occurrences of red tides resulting from processes of eutrophication and disequilibrium [27].
The sediment and water samples were collected on board the Tunisian vessel "Taparura" at 20 stations covering the Sfax northern and southern coastal areas in October 2014 (Figure 1; Table S1) Sampling was conducted along many short transects perpendicular to the shoreline. Bathymetry varied between 1 and 10 m. Stations closest to the coast (S2, S5, S11, S15) were located 300 m from the shore while those furthest offshore (S4, S9, S13, S17) were 2000 m from the coastline. In order to collect samples in similar conditions (high tide, clear sky, calm sea), sampling stations were divided into two groups: S1-S9 to the south of Sfax (collected on 18 October 2014) and S10-S17 to the north of Sfax (collected on 23 October 2014) Each transect was positioned close to potential sources of metals. Sediment sampling was not conducted at stations S3, S5, S11, S15 and S16. Seawater sampling was not conducted at stations S10 and S14 while three replicates were taken in stations S4, S9, S13 and S17.
Surficial sediments (0–5 cm) were collected using a Van Veen grab sampler and were stored on board in the dark in a cooler. Sub-surface waters (0.1 m depth) were manually collected from the front of the ship using pre-cleaned 60 mL LDPE bottles (Nalgene®) The bottles were opened below the water surface to avoid any sampling of the surface microlayer. They were rinsed three times with the respective sample before being filled, stored in two polyethylene bags and placed in a cooler. Before use, the LDPE bottles were first soaked in 10% HCl (VWR, Analytical reagent grade) for one week, then rinsed with ultrapure water (Millipore system, R = 18.2 MΩ cm−1), filled with 0.1% HCl (Fisher Scientific, Ultima grade) for one day, before being rinsed again with ultrapure water and filled with 0.1% HCl. LDPE bottles were stored in two polyethylene bags until use. Powderless gloves were worn during all procedures. Back in the laboratory, sediment samples were immediately frozen at −20 ℃ for several days before being freeze-dried, 200 µm sieved and finally homogenized before analysis. Water samples were immediately acidified at pH 2 with ultrapure HCl, wrapped in plastic bags and stored in the cold (4 ℃) until analysis.
Total concentration of trace metals (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sn, Ti, U, V, Zn) in sediments was determined by Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS, Nexion 300X, Perkin Elmer) after digestion with a mixture of strong acids (HNO3−HCl-HF, 1:3:1), heated on a hot-block (120 ℃, 24 h) Blanks and certified marine sediment samples (MESS-4) were digested and analyzed following the same protocol in order to assess the efficiency of the method. Recovery ranged between 78 and 107% for all the elements (Table S2)
For chemical sequential extractions, the standardized 3-step sequential extraction scheme proposed by the Community Bureau of Reference (BCR) was used to obtained information about geochemical fractions including: F1) exchangeable fraction (i.e. water-soluble metals associated with carbonates bound phases); F2) reducible fraction (i.e. metals in easily reducible phases or metals generally associated with Fe and Mn oxides/hydroxides) and F3) oxidizable fraction (i.e. metals mainly complexed with organic matter and pyritic compounds) The BCR protocol has been explicitly describing elsewhere [28,29]. Briefly, all extractions were carried out by acid leaching in 50 mL metal-free polypropylene centrifuge tubes (VWR) using end-over-end agitation (30 ± 10 rpm, 20 ℃, 16 h) The extracts were separated from the residues after centrifugation (3000 g, 20 min); supernatants were stored at 4 ℃ until analysis and residues were washed with 10 mL ultrapure water, shaken for 15 min, centrifuged and dried at 60 ℃ to near dryness. Step 1 (F1) was started with 1.0 g of dry sediments and 40 mL CH3COOH (0.11 M) For Step 2 (F2), 40 mL NH2OH.HCl (0.5 M, pH 2) was added to the residue of Step 1. For Step 3 (F3), the Step 2 residue was leached using 10 mL H2O2 (8.8 M, 1 h) then heated on a hot-block (85 ℃, 1 h) Another 10 mL H2O2 was added and heated at 85 ℃ for 1 h. Finally, 50 mL CH3COOH (1 M) was added to the residue with continuous agitation (16 h) Note that the elemental concentrations in the Step 3 residue (i.e. fraction R) were estimated by subtracting the concentrations of the three metal fractions (F1, F2, F3) from the total element concentration (obtained by strong acid HNO3-HCl-HF digestion) To validate this extraction procedure, the certified sediment BCR 701 was treated in the same way as the samples. Concentrations of trace metals (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, U, V, Zn) in extractible phases were determined by ICP-MS (Nexion 300X, Perkin Elmer); results, blanks and certified values are detailed in Table S3 as supporting information.
Concentrations of trace metals (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sn, Ti, U, V, Zn) in seawater samples (i.e. total dissolved samples) were measured by Argon Gas Dilution Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (AGD-ICP-MS, iCAP-Q, Thermo Scientific) with on-line addition of indium as an internal standard element to correct for instrumental drift and possible matrix effects. Because high dissolved solid contents induce ionization suppression, the AGD technique is useful for reducing sample matrix content to about 0.2% of dissolved solids before entering the plasma [30]. In AGD-ICP-MS analyses, the argon (Ar) gas flow through the nebulizer is reduced while the total Ar gas flow to the plasma is maintained by the addition of a make-up Ar gas flow to the aerosol leaving the spray chamber. The sample aerosol is thereby diluted with Ar gas inside the ICP-MS sample introduction system. Precision and accuracy of ICP-MS measurements were controlled using certified reference nearshore seawater (CASS-5) In addition, the reproducibility of the sampling procedure was verified through collection of 3 replicate samples of seawater at 4 stations (S4, S9, S13 and S17), with results detailed in Table S4 as supporting information.
The Enrichment Factor (EF) was initially developed to speculate on the origin of elements in the atmosphere [31,32] and was progressively extended to the study of soils, sediments and other environmental materials. It is a convenient tool to evaluate the anthropogenic contribution of a metal (x) according the following equation:
| EFx=(Cx/Cref)sediment(Cx/Cref)background | (1) |
where, Cx is the metal concentration, Cref is the concentration of a reference element in sediment and background matrix. Five categories are used to describe the degree of contamination in sediments [33]. EF < 2 indicates a natural origin, EF between 2–5 indicates moderate enrichment, EF between 5–20 indicates significant enrichment, EF between 20–40 indicates very high enrichment, and EF > 40 are considered to be evidence of severe enrichment.
Another common criterion used to evaluate anthropogenic impact in sediment is the geo-accumulation index (Igeo), originally defined by Müller [34]:
| Igeo=Log2(Cx1.5×Bx) | (2) |
where Cx is the metal concentration in the sample and Bx is the metal concentration in the geochemical background. Factor 1.5 is used to minimise the possible effect of lithogenic inputs in a given environment. According to the Müller's scale, the degree of contamination determined by Igeo can be classified in seven categories: uncontaminated (Igeo ≤ 0), uncontaminated to moderately contaminated (0 < Igeo ≤ 1), moderately contaminated (1 < Igeo ≤ 2), moderately to strongly contaminated (2 < Igeo ≤ 3), strongly contaminated (3 < Igeo ≤ 4), strongly to extremely contaminated (4 < Igeo ≤ 5), extremely contaminated (Igeo > 5).
To assess the sediment environmental quality, an integrated Pollution Load Index (PLI) is calculated according to Tomlinson et al. [35]. The PLI equation is defined as the nth root of contamination factors (CFi) multiplication:
| PLI=n√∏ni=1CFi | (3) |
where CFi is the ratio between the metal concentration and its background value. Because trace metal origin is not always well defined, Tomlinson et al. [35] recommend limiting PLI to the 5 elements showing the highest contamination factors, in order to evaluate the overall level of human induced pollution rather than enrichment of metals through geological weathering. A PLI value > 1 indicates a contaminated site whereas a PLI ≤ 1 reflects no metal pollution.
The selection of the background matrix is a key parameter for assessments of EF, Igeo and PLI. However, since there are no published data sets for uncontaminated sediments on a regional scale (i.e. in the Gulf of Gabès), we used upper continental crust data as reference values in the background matrix [36,37]. These data are often used to represent the "natural background values" in environmental studies but do not take into account the regional pre-industrial background. Therefore, we used the geochemical indexes (EF, Igeo and PLI) as indicators of relative metal contamination rather than as absolute degrees of pollution. Furthermore, the reference element should be chosen free of contamination, stable, and reflecting geogenic sources. In the literature, several lithogenic elements (Al, Fe, Li, Cs, Rh, etc.) have been used in the normalization procedure. Fe is one of the most popular reference elements because it is highly concentrated in soils and because natural inputs are usually the dominant source [38,39,40,41].
A multivariate statistical analysis approach was used to evaluate possible relationships between variables (Xlstat 2.05 statistical software) Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is a data reduction technique whereby new variables Principal Component (PC) are calculated from linear combinations of large sets of data. Loadings of new variables are defined by eigenvalues of the correlation matrix using simple linear regressions between original data. In our case, because most of the data were not normally distributed and presented a high variability, we used Spearman's rank-order correlation method (P < 0.05) instead of the Pearson method. PCA combines information on all data, and loadings indicate the relative contribution of each original variable to the new vectors [42].
Trace metals (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sn, Ti, U, V, Zn) concentrations in surface coastal sediments are presented in Table 1. The sampling area can be divided into two distinct zones (Figure 1) In the surface sediments of the southern coast (S1-9), distributions of each element presented strong heterogeneities (Table 1) The lowest trace metal concentrations were recorded at S2 (Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sn and V) and S9 (As, Cd, Mo, U and Zn) and the highest ones were observed at S6-7. In the northern coast (S10-17), concentrations were high and quite homogeneous compared to those of the southern zone. Conversely to many elements, maximal values of Cd, Mo and Zn were found in the northern zone at S12 (Cd, Zn) and S14 (Mo).
| As | Cd | Co | Cr | Cu | Fe | Mn | Mo | Ni | Pb | Sb | Sn | Ti | U | V | Zn | |
| Southern zone | ||||||||||||||||
| S1 | 4.98 | 1.28 | 3.12 | 47.52 | 6.56 | 8542.3 | 126.93 | 1.63 | 10.02 | 9.92 | 0.34 | 1.03 | 1598.2 | 3.76 | 31.09 | 43.51 |
| S2 | 1.66 | 1.70 | 0.42 | 9.09 | 1.71 | 2236.6 | 22.28 | 0.33 | 1.97 | 2.12 | 0.16 | 0.13 | 1220.1 | 2.31 | 5.47 | 15.60 |
| S3 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| S4 | 4.99 | 1.08 | 2.82 | 31.79 | 5.97 | 6010.2 | 93.29 | 1.78 | 8.85 | 10.15 | 0.50 | 0.92 | 1226.0 | 4.57 | 30.93 | 33.23 |
| S5 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| S6 | 6.37 | 1.63 | 4.17 | 56.25 | 9.80 | 7343.8 | 153.51 | 2.34 | 13.80 | 15.27 | 0.56 | 1.73 | 1632.6 | 5.18 | 43.56 | 56.13 |
| S7 | 6.79 | 2.27 | 3.39 | 48.33 | 13.87 | 7204.9 | 121.20 | 2.38 | 11.24 | 11.06 | 0.48 | 1.15 | 1146.0 | 5.27 | 33.09 | 73.06 |
| S8 | 3.81 | 1.01 | 1.88 | 27.02 | 5.38 | 4599.7 | 71.75 | 1.33 | 6.23 | 8.15 | 0.33 | 0.75 | 1100.4 | 2.89 | 20.49 | 28.75 |
| S9 | 1.12 | 0.32 | 0.99 | 11.70 | 2.11 | 2497.3 | 67.39 | 0.20 | 2.59 | 5.30 | 0.20 | 0.76 | 1209.0 | 1.07 | 11.16 | 9.34 |
| Min | 1.12 | 0.32 | 0.42 | 9.09 | 1.71 | 2236.6 | 22.28 | 0.20 | 1.97 | 2.12 | 0.16 | 0.13 | 1100.4 | 1.07 | 5.47 | 9.34 |
| Max | 6.79 | 2.27 | 4.17 | 56.25 | 13.87 | 8542.3 | 153.51 | 2.38 | 13.80 | 15.27 | 0.56 | 1.73 | 1632.6 | 5.27 | 43.56 | 73.06 |
| Northern zone | ||||||||||||||||
| S10 | 4.07 | 3.20 | 1.86 | 25.71 | 7.95 | 6475.0 | 69.58 | 2.76 | 7.03 | 6.20 | 0.50 | 0.69 | 1481.4 | 4.85 | 21.26 | 52.34 |
| S11 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| S12 | 4.76 | 3.51 | 2.89 | 37.96 | 9.74 | 7374.9 | 81.62 | 6.19 | 10.64 | 9.46 | 0.50 | 1.04 | 1515.0 | 4.07 | 30.44 | 87.47 |
| S13 | 3.81 | 3.26 | 2.45 | 32.10 | 7.86 | 6251.7 | 75.66 | 6.90 | 9.22 | 8.23 | 0.37 | 0.88 | 1318.7 | 4.45 | 26.68 | 49.82 |
| S14 | 5.46 | 3.42 | 2.59 | 30.08 | 7.76 | 6018.8 | 72.78 | 7.21 | 9.76 | 7.10 | 0.43 | 0.85 | 1295.8 | 4.35 | 26.21 | 50.39 |
| S15 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| S16 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| S17 | 4.88 | 1.43 | 2.25 | 26.03 | 5.87 | 5370.3 | 72.03 | 5.05 | 8.02 | 6.72 | 0.32 | 0.71 | 1293.8 | 3.62 | 22.49 | 30.78 |
| Min | 3.81 | 1.43 | 1.86 | 25.71 | 5.87 | 5370.3 | 69.58 | 2.76 | 7.03 | 6.20 | 0.32 | 0.71 | 1293.8 | 3.62 | 21.26 | 30.78 |
| Max | 5.46 | 3.51 | 2.89 | 37.96 | 9.74 | 7374.9 | 81.62 | 7.21 | 10.64 | 9.46 | 0.50 | 1.04 | 1515.0 | 4.85 | 30.44 | 87.47 |
| Note: N/A = not available | ||||||||||||||||
DownLoad:
CSV
Sediment quality can be discussed using biogeochemical indexes (EF, Igeo, PLI) according to the abundance of elements in sediments. In the Sfax coastal area, EF covered all classes of enrichment from natural origin to severely contaminated. The average EF values of all sampling points ranged with a degree of metal enrichment according to increasing inputs of Mn < Co < Sn < Cu < Ni < V < Ti < Pb < Zn < Cr < U < Sb < Mo < As < Cd (Table 2) The individual EF values generally fell below 2 for Co, Mn and Sn (except for S9 with EF value reaching 2.6), indicating a natural enrichment relative to the reference of pre-industrial background. Other elements such as Cu, Ni, Pb, Ti, V and Zn ranked as moderately enriched with some discrepancies over the study site. Lower EF values were found for Cu at S1, S4, S9 and S17, for Ni at S2, S9 and S10, for Ti at S7, and for V at S10 showing a minor anthropogenic impact. Conversely, higher EF values were found for Zn at S7 and S12 showing a moderate to significant enrichment for this element. In the moderately enriched elements category, Pb presented the largest range of EF values from S10 to S2. Anthropogenic Pb inputs are often associated to oil combustion processes [43,44]. Fourati et al. [21] also observed a discrepancy in the spatial distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons with the highest concentrations found along the Sfax southern coast. The important industrial and harbor activities in this zone could explain the Pb enrichment. Other elements such as As, Cr, Mo, Sb and U ranked as significantly enriched but Cr and Mo presented spatial disparities. Higher EF values were found for Cr in the southern part and for Mo in the northern part of the coastal area showing local specific anthropogenic inputs. However, due to numerous urban-industrial activities and to the difficulty of the assessment of the sediment source apportionment in this context, the anthropogenic sources could not be unambiguously identified. Finally, Cd showed the highest degrees of enrichment (EF > 40 at all stations) and ranked sediments of the study site as severely contaminated.
| S1 | S2 | S4 | S6 | S7 | S8 | S9 | S10 | S12 | S13 | S14 | S17 | |
| Enrichment factor (EF1) | ||||||||||||
| As | 11, 0 | 12.6 | 15.6 | 16.3 | 17.7 | 15.6 | 8.4 | 11.8 | 12.1 | 11.5 | 17.1 | 17.1 |
| Cd | 49.4 | 180.8 | 59.2 | 73.1 | 103.7 | 72.5 | 42.3 | 162.6 | 156.8 | 171.7 | 187.0 | 87.5 |
| Co | 1.1 | 1.4 | 1.4 | 1.7 | 1.4 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 0.9 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.3 | 1.3 |
| Cr | 5.2 | 6.0 | 5.0 | 7.2 | 6.3 | 5.5 | 4.4 | 3.7 | 4.8 | 4.8 | 4.7 | 4.6 |
| Cu | 1.3 | 2.1 | 1.7 | 2.2 | 3.2 | 2.0 | 1.4 | 2.1 | 2.2 | 2.1 | 2.2 | 1.8 |
| Fe | ||||||||||||
| Mn | 0.9 | 1.8 | 0.9 | 1.2 | 1.0 | 0.9 | 1.6 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.8 |
| Mo | 4.3 | 2.8 | 6.7 | 7.2 | 7.5 | 6.6 | 1.8 | 9.7 | 19.1 | 25.1 | 27.2 | 21.4 |
| Ni | 2.0 | 1.8 | 2.5 | 3.2 | 2.7 | 2.3 | 1.8 | 1.9 | 2.5 | 2.5 | 2.8 | 2.5 |
| Pb | 2.1 | 5.3 | 3.0 | 3.7 | 2.7 | 3.2 | 3.8 | 1.7 | 2.3 | 2.3 | 2.1 | 2.2 |
| Sb | 5.2 | 8.0 | 10.7 | 9.8 | 8.5 | 9.2 | 10.4 | 9.9 | 8.8 | 7.6 | 9.2 | 7.6 |
| Sn | 0.9 | 1.4 | 1.3 | 1.9 | 1.3 | 1.3 | 2.6 | 0.9 | 1.1 | 1.1 | 1.1 | 1.1 |
| Ti | 2.0 | 5.9 | 2.2 | 2.4 | 1.7 | 2.6 | 5.2 | 2.5 | 2.2 | 2.3 | 2.3 | 2.6 |
| U | 5.5 | 6.1 | 9.5 | 8.8 | 9.1 | 7.8 | 5.3 | 9.3 | 6.9 | 8.9 | 9.0 | 8.4 |
| V | 2.1 | 2.5 | 3.0 | 3.5 | 2.7 | 2.6 | 2.6 | 1.9 | 2.4 | 2.5 | 2.5 | 2.4 |
| Zn | 2.7 | 4.2 | 3.0 | 4.1 | 5.4 | 3.3 | 2.0 | 4.3 | 6.4 | 4.3 | 4.5 | 3.1 |
| Geoaccumulation index (Igeo2) | ||||||||||||
| As | 0.9 | −0.8 | 0.9 | 1.3 | 1.4 | 0.5 | −1.2 | 0.6 | 0.9 | 0.5 | 1.1 | 0.9 |
| Cd | 3.1 | 3.0 | 2.8 | 3.4 | 3.9 | 2.8 | 1.1 | 4.4 | 4.5 | 4.4 | 4.5 | 3.2 |
| Co | −2.4 | −4.0 | −2.5 | −2.0 | −2.3 | −3.1 | −4.0 | −3.1 | −2.5 | −2.7 | −2.6 | −2.8 |
| Cr | −0.1 | −1.9 | −0.7 | 0.1 | −0.1 | −1.0 | −2.2 | −1.0 | −0.5 | −0.7 | −0.8 | −1.0 |
| Cu | −2.2 | −3.4 | −2.3 | −1.6 | −1.1 | −2.5 | −3.8 | −1.9 | −1.6 | −1.9 | −1.9 | −2.3 |
| Fe | −2.5 | −4.5 | −3.0 | −2.8 | −2.8 | −3.4 | −4.3 | −2.9 | −2.7 | −3.0 | −3.0 | −3.2 |
| Mn | −2.7 | −3.6 | −3.2 | −2.5 | −2.8 | −3.6 | −3.6 | −3.6 | −3.4 | −3.5 | −3.5 | −3.6 |
| Mo | −0.4 | −3.0 | −0.3 | 0.1 | 0.1 | −0.7 | −3.4 | 0.3 | 1.5 | 1.7 | 1.7 | 1.2 |
| Ni | −1.5 | −3.6 | −1.7 | −1.1 | −1.4 | −2.2 | −3.5 | −2.0 | −1.4 | −1.7 | −1.6 | −1.9 |
| Pb | −1.5 | −2.1 | −1.5 | −0.9 | −1.3 | −1.8 | −2.4 | −2.2 | −1.6 | −1.8 | −2.0 | −2.0 |
| Sb | −0.1 | −1.5 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.3 | −0.2 | −0.9 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.0 | 0.2 | −0.3 |
| Sn | −2.6 | −3.9 | −2.7 | −1.8 | −2.4 | −3.1 | −3.0 | −3.2 | −2.6 | −2.8 | −2.9 | −3.0 |
| Ti | −1.5 | −1.9 | −1.9 | −1.5 | −2.0 | −2.1 | −1.9 | −1.6 | −1.6 | −1.8 | −1.8 | −1.8 |
| U | −0.1 | −1.8 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.4 | −0.5 | −1.9 | 0.3 | 0.0 | 0.2 | 0.1 | −0.1 |
| V | −1.4 | −3.1 | −1.5 | −1.0 | −1.4 | −2.0 | −2.9 | −2.0 | −1.5 | −1.7 | −1.7 | −1.9 |
| Zn | −1.1 | −2.4 | −1.5 | −0.7 | −0.3 | −1.7 | −3.3 | −0.8 | −0.1 | −0.9 | −0.9 | −1.6 |
| Pollution Load Index (PLI3) | ||||||||||||
| 2.4 | 0.9 | 2.6 | 3.3 | 3.5 | 2.0 | 0.6 | 3.5 | 4.2 | 3.8 | 4.3 | 3.0 | |
| Notes: Contamination levels: 1 EF < 2, natural origin; 2 < EF < 5, moderate; 5 < EF < 20, significant; 20 < EF < 40, very high; EF > 40, severe enrichment. 2 Igeo < 0, unpolluted; 0 < Igeo < 1, unpolluted to moderate; 1 < Igeo < 2, moderate; 2 < Igeo < 3, moderate to strong; 3 < Igeo < 4, strong; 4 < Igeo < 5, strong to extreme; Igeo > 5, extremely polluted. 3 PLI < 1, natural origin; PLI > 1, contaminated site. | ||||||||||||
DownLoad:
CSV
According to Igeo values, all elements except Cd were ranked between unpolluted and moderately polluted. Due to the numerous Sfax urban/industrial activities, the accumulation of these elements in coastal zones is highly possible. The development of background/reference concentrations is necessary to assess precisely the anthropogenic contribution of contaminants in the Sfax coastal area. The highest Igeo values were found for Cd, ranking this element as highly polluted in the southern part of the Sfax coastal area and as highly to extremely polluted in the northern part. These results are in agreement with the EF indexes and Cd contamination cannot be ignored; indeed the origin of these anthropogenic inputs should be identified.
PLI was calculated using the 5 elements showing the highest contamination factors in sediments of the Sfax coastal area, i.e. As, Cd, Mo, Sb and U (Table 2) Highest PLI values were found on the Sfax northern coast. In this area, PLI values were homogenous and ranged from 3.0 (S17) to 4.3 (S14) On the other hand, PLI showed lower values with higher fluctuations on the southern coast, a minimum and a maximum were located at the offshore station (S9) and in front of the harbor activities (S7), respectively. According to Tomlinson et al. [35], these sediments can be presented as contaminated, except for S9 and S2. Based on the total chemical concentrations in sediments, PLI revealed an anthropogenic influence from Sfax urban/industrial effluents and highlighted these stations as possible deposition sites for the particulate matter which might influence the water quality.
The potential mobility of trace metals in sediments depends on their physicochemical form [5]. Sequential extractions provide quantitative information about the distribution of elements associated with specific geochemical fractions. However, the protocols do present some limitations and should thus be viewed as operationally defined [45,46]. For this reason, we have focused our discussion on the six certified elements (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn).
Trace metal (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn) distribution in various geochemical phases (F1, F2, F3 and R) is shown in Figure 2. The extracted percent values of other trace metals (As, Co, Mn, Mo, Sb, U and V) analyzed in this study are shown in Figure S1 and all analytical results are detailed in Table S3. With the exception of Cd, the relative fractions of trace metals (Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn) in the exchangeable phase (F1) were generally very low and could be ignored. In F1, the mean proportions (%) of trace metals in sediments were as follows: Cd 25.6, Cr 0.9, Cu 2.6, Ni 1.4, Pb 1.0 and Zn 4.2. Spatial variations were observed for the Cd exchangeable fraction. Great discrepancies in Cd percentages were encountered in the southern part (62% at S2 and 0% at S9) and more homogeneous proportions (25.3% on average) were found on the northern coast. On average, the percentages of reducible fractions (F2) were highest for Pb and Zn (45 and 39%, respectively) and were comparable to the exchangeable phase for Cd (25.7%) The lowest proportions of trace metals in F2 were found for Cr, Cu and Ni with 11.7, 6.6 and 16.2%, respectively. In F2, no spatial pattern could be observed among the studied elements. The average proportions of Pb and Zn in the oxidizable fraction (F3) were extremely low and accounted for only 0.7 and 3.6% of its total concentrations in sediments, respectively. F3 was the most abundant non-residual phase for Cr (40.7%), Cu (23.6%) and Ni (23.5%) and was comparable to F1 and F2 for Cd (23.6%) Cu occurred mostly in the residual phase (R) ranging from 55.7 to 83.1%. High percentages in R fraction were also encountered for Cr (average 46.7%), Ni (average 58.8%), Pb (average 53.2%) and Zn (average 52.8%), whereas proportions of Cd were lower (average 26.8%) and more heterogeneous.
Trace metal bioavailability is mainly dependent on partitioning or binding strength between elements and solid phases. Metal mobility increases as binding strength decreases [47,48]. Dissolved or weakly absorbed trace metals are more bioavailable to trophic community compared to more structurally complexes mineral-bound elements which may only become bioavailable upon ingestion with food [49,50,51]. In this study, Cd was equally distributed among various phases (F1, F2, F3 and R) Cd contents in F1 indicated that carbonates were important binding sites. This notion is supported by its high affinity with Ca under alkaline and oxidizing conditions [52,53]. Furthermore, Cd may be related to the selective oxidisation of the pyrite (Fe oxides) and to the formation of siderites (secondary carbonates) capable of retaining heavy metals [54]. The presence of Cl− may also facilitate Cd immobilisation by forming chloride complexes. In cyanobacteria and phytoplankton communities, Cd is one of the most toxic metals acting through the poisoning of enzymes [55,56]. High EF values and the relatively significant amount of Cd in F1 may have a hazardous impact on marine biota during remobilisation processes of sediments induced by natural events or anthropogenic activities. Conversely, high contents of trace metals (Cr, Cu and Ni) in F3+R phases may reduce the environmental risk of these elements. The R phase, consisting of trace metals retained within the crystal lattice of minerals oxides is considered immobile. As described by Hamzeh et al. [57], Cr may form strong bonds with silicates, thus rendering this element less mobile. Ni is usually expected in the residual phase [58]. According to Bruemer et al. [59], this element has a high attraction for clay minerals due the strong stabilization energy of Ni2+. Numerous studies show that Cu easily forms complexes with organic matter due to the high stability constant of the metal-ligand complex [60,61]. Usually, no sulfides are present in oxidized surface sediments; hence trace metals in the F3 phase may associated with organic matter still labile and possibly released in the water column during physical events (e.g. tides, currents) In the non-residual fraction, Pb and Zn were associated with F2, showing a notable affinity for Fe/Mn oxides. Our results were in agreement with the well-known ability of amorphous Fe/Mn oxides to scavenge Pb [62,63]. Due to the high stability constants of Zn oxides, these oxides may also occlude Zn in the lattice structures [64,65].
The concentration ranges of total dissolved trace metals (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sn, Ti, U, V, Zn) in subsurface waters are presented in Table 3. The majority of coastal stations (S2, S5, S11, S15) were characterized by concentrations of total dissolved trace metals higher than those observed in most offshore stations (S4, S9, S17), although no clear spatial distribution (north-south) was observed. Despite this great heterogeneity, the southern zone tends to have lower concentrations of trace metals than the northern zone, except for Cd, Sn and Zn. In order to evaluate the anthropogenic influence on coastal waters, the European Community has developed health-based standards (2000/60/EC and 2008/56/EC directives) to protect pelagic organisms from direct chemical toxicities [66,67]. The OSPAR [68] commission recommends the use of Environmental Assessment Criteria (EAC) as a tool for environmental management. Among the 33 priority substances, As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn are listed as hazardous chemicals for marine ecosystems as follows: i) below the lower EAC values, dissolved trace metals should not impact biological activity; ii) between the lower and upper EAC values, biological effects are possible and management action should be taken to identify the reasons for elevated levels; iii) above the upper EAC values, long-term biological effects are likely and acute biological effects are possible. In the Sfax coastal area, measured Pb and Cr concentrations were below and in the region of the min-EAC values, respectively, total dissolved As levels were in the middle range of the EAC values, while concentrations above the max-EAC values were found for Cu, Ni and Zn (Table 3) According to this classification, Cd could impact severely the biological activity at the most nearshore coastal stations.
| As | Cd | Co | Cr | Cu | Fe | Mn | Mo | Ni | Pb | Sb | Sn | Ti | U | V | Zn | |
| Sfax coastal zone | ||||||||||||||||
| S1 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| S2 | 2.14 | 0.176 | 0.114 | 1.66 | 0.82 | 86.8 | 6.49 | 13.9 | 2.31 | 0.206 | N/A | 0.664 | 1.585 | 4.25 | 2.97 | 32.0 |
| S3 | 1.93 | 0.077 | 0.052 | 0.95 | 0.56 | 10.1 | 1.66 | 14.6 | 1.90 | 0.121 | N/A | 0.571 | 0.400 | 4.12 | 2.27 | 35.4 |
| S41 | 1.95 | 0.061 | 0.062 | 1.16 | 0.74 | 11.8 | 1.89 | 14.7 | 10.04 | 0.137 | N/A | 0.463 | 0.616 | 4.07 | 2.41 | 34.0 |
| S5 | 2.43 | 0.201 | 0.174 | 2.17 | 0.89 | 142.7 | 9.97 | 15.1 | 5.35 | 0.294 | N/A | 0.382 | 2.172 | 4.66 | 4.00 | 44.9 |
| S6 | 2.22 | 0.105 | 0.084 | 1.06 | 0.92 | 27.1 | 3.61 | 16.3 | 1.49 | 0.137 | N/A | 0.294 | 0.882 | 4.29 | 2.75 | 19.6 |
| S7 | 2.98 | 0.249 | 0.196 | 2.20 | 1.11 | 91.7 | 9.68 | 17.3 | 60.37 | 0.378 | N/A | 0.312 | 1.682 | 4.86 | 4.38 | 38.5 |
| S8 | 2.09 | 0.063 | 0.080 | 1.16 | 0.74 | 20.2 | 2.81 | 13.9 | 30.85 | 0.243 | N/A | 0.229 | 0.771 | 3.69 | 2.39 | 38.0 |
| S91 | 2.10 | 0.033 | 0.070 | 0.45 | 0.84 | 8.8 | 2.46 | 15.6 | 0.89 | 0.135 | N/A | 0.221 | 0.596 | 3.96 | 2.46 | 12.5 |
| S10 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| S11 | 2.09 | 0.084 | 0.116 | 1.40 | 1.35 | 109.3 | 4.52 | 15.6 | 55.37 | 0.282 | N/A | 0.045 | 1.767 | 4.05 | 2.68 | 45.3 |
| S12 | 2.15 | 0.059 | 0.093 | 0.68 | 1.25 | 70.8 | 3.90 | 16.1 | 0.95 | 0.267 | N/A | 0.030 | 1.141 | 4.15 | 2.55 | 12.3 |
| S131 | 2.44 | 0.088 | 0.164 | 1.26 | 1.33 | 256.7 | 6.14 | 16.1 | 1.33 | 0.436 | N/A | < LoD | 4.291 | 4.22 | 3.39 | 17.5 |
| S14 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| S15 | 2.88 | 0.118 | 0.280 | 1.45 | 1.17 | 466.9 | 9.93 | 20.5 | 1.65 | 0.544 | N/A | 0.036 | 7.048 | 5.40 | 5.12 | 20.9 |
| S16 | 2.61 | 0.016 | 0.110 | 0.44 | 0.84 | 29.1 | 4.36 | 18.7 | 2.02 | 0.121 | N/A | < LoD | 0.798 | 4.64 | 3.58 | 13.8 |
| S171 | 2.50 | 0.022 | 0.091 | 0.33 | 0.67 | 29.0 | 4.46 | 17.2 | 0.81 | 0.112 | N/A | < LoD | 0.709 | 4.27 | 3.25 | 12.6 |
| MSFD-EAC 2 | ||||||||||||||||
| Min | 1 | 0.01 | N/A | 1 | 0.005 | N/A | N/A | N/A | 0.1 | 0.5 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 0.5 |
| Max | 10 | 0.1 | N/A | 10 | 0.05 | N/A | N/A | N/A | 1 | 5 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 5 |
| Notes: N/A = not available; LoD = Limit of Detection. 1 Arithmetic mean (n=3). 2 MSFD-EAC = Marine Strategy Framework Directive (2008/56/EC) – Environmental Assessment Criteria. |
||||||||||||||||
DownLoad:
CSV
PCA was used to discriminate processes controlling the variability of total dissolved trace metals throughout the Sfax coastal area. Significant correlations were found between 15 original variables (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sn, Ti, U, V, Zn) and new variables. Details of statistical analyses are given in Table S5 (Spearman correlation matrix) and Table S6 (Varimax rotation matrix) Original variables were reduced to three PC (eigenvalues higher than 1) and covered 90% of the total variance. PC1, which described 54% of the variance, had a high positive variable loading (>0.7) for all elements except Mo, Ni, Sn and Zn (Figure 3a) PC2, which described 24% of the variance, had a positive variable loading (>0.6) for Cr, Ni, Sn and Zn and a negative variable loading (<−0.6) for Mo (Figure 3a, c) PC3, which described 12% of the variance, had a positive variable loading (>0.5) for Sn and U and a negative loading (>−0.5) for Cu and Pb (Figure 3c).
The scatter plot corresponding to the first two components (PC1-PC2) showed geographical distribution between stations (Figure 3b) The nearest coastal stations (S7, S15) coincided with the increase of total dissolved trace metals concentrations and were in opposition with to the furthest offshore stations (S4, S9, S17) PC1 underlined the occurrence of offshore-to-coast gradients in the distribution of trace metals. Earlier in this study, geochemical indexes (EF, Igeo and PLI) showed that trace metals distribution in sediments could be linked to inputs from Sfax urban/industrial effluents. PC2 revealed the presence of two groups of stations (Figure 3b) The first group includes all southern stations (except S6) that were characterized by positive PC2 associated with high Cr, Ni, Sn and Zn concentrations. The second group is composed of all northern stations (except S11) that were characterized by negative PC2 associated with high Mo concentrations. The exception, S11, is a northern coastal station receiving the outlet of the PK4 channel. Implemented in 1982 to protect the city of Sfax against flood events, the PK4 channel crosses the city from southwest to northeast [23], making S11 a more "typical southern station" than other stations in the northern zone. Conversely, the exception, S6, is a southern station located in front of the commercial harbor. To maintain harbor activities, dredging campaigns are undertaken every 10 years and can modify the chemical characteristics of this station. The scatter plot of stations corresponding to PC2-PC3 showed that dissolved trace metals concentrations could be explained by both natural and anthropogenic inputs (Figure 3d) Stations S2 and S7 presented a high positive PC2-PC3 that was significantly correlated with Cr, Ni, Sn, U and Zn concentrations. Stations S2 and S7 were located in front of the outlet of El Maou wadi and the fishing harbor, respectively. As explained previously, Zn presents a moderate to significant enrichment in sediment which may be linked to the discharge of urban/industrial effluents. Regarding dissolved U concentrations, Papanicolaou et al. [69] already observed a linear correlation between phosphogypsum solubility and U levels. Hence, S2 and S7 (and other southern stations) may be impacted by urban/industrial effluents including phosphogypsum activities. S8 and S11 showed a high positive PC2 and a high negative PC3. Both stations were located in front of the harbor area and the outlet of the PK4 channel, respectively. Both stations have recently been dredged to maintain harbor activities in the southern zone (S8) and to restore the northern coastal area (S11, Taparura projet) As explained previously, Cr, Cu and Ni present high affinities for organic matter or mineral oxides forms. Due to complexation processes, inputs of trace metals by urban/industrial effluents can be removed from seawater and export them to surface sediments.
Conversely, the northernmost stations (S15, S16 and S17) presented a high negative PC2 and a high positive PC3, underscoring a correlation with As, Mo and U. These latter elements are recognized as typical tracers of phosphogypsum [70,71,72]. In 2006, the northern zone was dredged in order to remove 450,000 m3 of contaminated sediments to reduce environmental impact of urban/industrial effluents [24,71]. However, some trace metals present high EF (e.g. As, Mo and U) Many processes are able of sequestrating remobilized trace metals in sediments: microbial oxidation, bioturbation, geochemical gradients (e.g. salinity, redox, turbidity) and also tidal currents, wind waves, flooding, ship traffic, dredging, fishing [4,73]. These results are in agreement with As, Mo and U distribution in the different geochemical phases (F1, F2, F3 and R) of sediments (Figure S1) The fractionation of these elements showed high concentrations (about 50%) in F1, the most exchangeable phase, revealing a high potential of remobilization.
This work evidenced the dynamics and potential environmental impact of trace metals in an archetypal shallow coastal ecosystem, i.e, the Gulf of Gabès (southern Mediterranean Sea), which is now clearly identified as one of the eleven "consensus" eco-regions of the Mediterranean Sea [7]. We found the occurrence of discrete zones of higher concentrations of some trace metals in seawater and/or sediments.
Cd showed a great affinity (50%) for the exchangeable fraction supported by its high affinity for Ca in alkaline sediments of the Gulf of Gabès. Due to high EF values (>40) in sediments, the mineral complexes may have a hazardous impact for the marine biota. Inversely, other elements (Cu, Cr and Ni) were found in most residual phases reducing the environmental risk. Due to high stability constant of metal-ligand complexes, Cu was easily chelated with organic matter, Cr formed strong bonds with silicates and Ni was highly attracted for clays minerals. Pb and Zn, associated with F2 showed a notable affinity for Fe/Mn oxides. The pattern of Fe/Mn oxyhydroxides may play an important role in the release of trace metals.
Finally, we highlight that dissolved trace metals in surface waters were probably derived from industrial and urban effluents/wadis but also from sediment resuspension processes, induced by natural (tides, hydrodynamics) or anthropogenic (dredging) events.
This work was funded by the IRD-MIO Action South project "MANGA" and the IRD French-Tunisian International Joint Laboratory (LMI) "COSYS-Med". This study was carried out as a part of the WP3 C3A and MERITE actions of the CNRS-INSU MISTRALS/MERMEX program. We warmly thank Z. Drira from the laboratory of Biodiversity and Aquatic Ecosystems (Faculty of Sciences, University of Sfax) as well as H. Sahnoun and T. Omar for their help during cruises. We thank L. Causse from the AETE-ISO plateform (OSU/OREME, Université de Montpellier) for performing trace metals analysis in seawater samples and B. Angeletti (CEREGE) for performing trace metals analyses in sediments samples. Three anonymous reviewers are greatly acknowledged for their comments and corrections.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
| [1] |
Rana V, Rai P, Tiwary AK, et al. (2011) Modified gums: Approaches and applications in drug delivery. Carbohydr Polym 83: 1031-1047. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2010.09.010
|
| [2] | Clifford SC, Arndt SK, Popp M, et al. (2002) Mucilages and polysaccharides in Ziziphus species (Rhamnaceae): Localization, composition and physiological roles during drought-stress. J Exp Bot 53: 131-138. |
| [3] |
Prajapati VD, Jani GK, Moradiya NG, et al. (2013) Pharmaceutical applications of various natural gums, mucilages and their modified forms. Carbohydr Polym 92: 1685-1699. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2012.11.021
|
| [4] |
Ghanem ME, Hana RM, Classen B (2010) Mucilage and polysaccharides in the halophyte plant species Kosteletzkya virginica: Localization and composition in relation to salt stress. J Plant Physiol 167: 382-392. doi: 10.1016/j.jplph.2009.10.012
|
| [5] |
Franz G (1979) Metabolism of reserve polysaccharides in tubers of Orchis morio L. Planta Med 36: 68-73. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1097242
|
| [6] |
Mirhosseini H, Amid BT (2012) A review study on chemical composition and molecular structure of newly plant gum exudates and seed gums. Food Res Int 46: 387-398. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2011.11.017
|
| [7] |
Gupta S, Saurabh CK, Variyar PS, et al. (2015) Comparative analysis of dietary fiber activities of enzymatic and gamma depolymerized guar gum. Food Hydrocoll 48: 149-154. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2015.02.013
|
| [8] |
Hosseini-Parvar SH, Osano JP, Matia-Merino L. (2016) Emulsifying properties of basil seed gum: Effect of pH and ionic strength. Food Hydrocoll 52: 838-847. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2015.09.002
|
| [9] |
Buriti FCA, Freitas SC, Egito AS, et al. (2014) Effects of tropical fruit pulps and partially hydrolysed galactomannan from Caesalpinia pulcherrima seeds on the dietary fibre content, probiotic viability, texture and sensory features of goat dairy beverages. LWT Food Sci Technol 59: 196-203. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2014.04.022
|
| [10] |
Pang Z, Deeth H, Prakash S, et al. (2016) Development of rheological and sensory properties of combinations of milk proteins and gelling polysaccharides as potential gelatin replacements in the manufacture of stirred acid milk gels and yogurt. J Food Eng 169: 27-37. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2015.08.007
|
| [11] |
Cho HM, Yoo B (2015) Rheological characteristics of cold thickened beverages containing xanthan gum-based food thickeners used for dysphagia diets. J Acad Nutr Diet 115: 106-111. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2014.08.028
|
| [12] |
Bouaziz F, Koubaa M, Neifar M, et al. (2016) Feasibility of using almond gum as coating agent to improve the quality of fried potato chips: Evaluation of sensorial properties. LWT Food Sci Technol 65: 800-807. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2015.09.009
|
| [13] |
Yu L, Li J, Ding S, et al. (2016) Effect of guar gum with glycerol coating on the properties and oil absorption of fried potato chips. Food Hydrocoll 54: 211-219. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2015.10.003
|
| [14] |
Ma Q, Hu D, Wang H, et al. (2016) Tara gum edible film incorporated with oleic acid. Food Hydrocoll 56: 127-133. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2015.11.033
|
| [15] | Engler A (1964) Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien. Berlin: Gerbruder Borntraeger, 193. |
| [16] | Hegnauer R, Grayer-Barkmeuer RJ (1994) Relevance of seed polysaccharides and flavonoids for the classification of the Leguminosae: A chemotaxonomic approach. Phytochemistry 34: 3-16. |
| [17] |
Nishinari K, Zhang H, Ikeda S (2000) Hydrocolloid gels of polysaccharides and proteins. Curr Opin Colloid Interface Sci 5: 195-201. doi: 10.1016/S1359-0294(00)00053-4
|
| [18] | McClements DJ (2005) Food emulsions: Principles, practices, and techniques (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. |
| [19] | Williams PA, Phillips GO (2000) Introduction to food hydrocolloids, In: Phillips GO, Williams PA, Handbook of hydrocolloids. New York: CRC Press, 1-19. |
| [20] |
Fiszman S, Varela P (2013) The role of gums in satiety/satiation. A review. Food Hydrocoll 32: 147-154. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2012.12.010
|
| [21] | Deogade UM, Deshmukh VN, Sakarkar DM. (2012) Natural gums and mucilage's in NDDS: applications and recent approaches. Int J PharmTech Res 4: 799-814. |
| [22] |
Vasile FC, Martinez MJ, Ruiz-Henestrosa VMP, et al. (2016) Physicochemical, interfacial and emulsifying properties of a non-conventional exudate gum (Prosopis alba) in comparison with gum Arabic. Food Hydrocoll 56: 245-253. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2015.12.016
|
| [23] |
Martínez M, Beltrán O, Rincón F, et al. (2015) New structural features of Acacia tortuosa gum exudate. Food Chem 182: 105-110. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.02.124
|
| [24] |
Rezaei A, Nasirpour A, Tavanai H (2016) Fractionation and some physicochemical properties of almond gum (Amygdalus communis L.) exudates. Food Hydrocoll 60: 461-469. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2016.04.027
|
| [25] |
Thanzamia K, Malsawmtluangia C, Lalhlenmawia H, et al. (2015) Characterization and in vitro antioxidant activity of Albizia stipulata Boiv. gum exudates. Int J Biol Macromol 80: 231-239. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2015.06.043
|
| [26] |
Gashua IB, Williams PA, Yadav MP, et al. (2015) Characterisation and molecular association of Nigerian and Sudanese Acacia gum exudates. Food Hydrocoll 51: 405-413. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2015.05.037
|
| [27] | Souza MP, Cerqueira MA, Souza BWS, et al. (2010) Polysaccharide from Anarcadium occidentale L. tree gum (Policaju) as a coating for Tommy atkins mangoes. Chem Pap 64: 475-481. |
| [28] |
Lefsih K, Delattre C, Pierre G, et al. (2016) Extraction, characterization and gelling behavior enhancement of pectins from the cladodes of Opuntia ficus indica. Int J Biol Macromol 82: 645-652. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2015.10.046
|
| [29] |
Kapoor VP, Taravel FR, Joseleau JP, et al. (1998) Cassia spectabilis DC seed galactomannan: structural, crystallographical and rheological studies. Carbohydr Res 306: 231-241. doi: 10.1016/S0008-6215(97)00241-3
|
| [30] |
McCleary BV, Amado R, Waibel R, et al. (1981) Effect of galactose content on the solution and interaction properties of guar and carob galactomannans. Carbohyd Res 92: 269-285. doi: 10.1016/S0008-6215(00)80398-5
|
| [31] |
Kapoor VP (1994) Rheological properties of seed galactomannan from Cassia nodosa buch.-hem. Carbohyd. Polym 25: 79-84. doi: 10.1016/0144-8617(94)90142-2
|
| [32] |
Albuquerque PBS, Barros Júnior W, Santos GRC, et al. (2014) Characterization and rheological study of the galactomannan extracted from seeds of Cassia grandis. Carbohyd Polym 104: 127-134. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.01.010
|
| [33] |
Brummer Y, Cui W, Wang Q (2003) Extraction, purification, and physicochemical characterization of fenugreek gum. Food Hydrocoll 17: 229-236. doi: 10.1016/S0268-005X(02)00054-1
|
| [34] |
Dakia PA, Blecker C, Robert C, et al. (2008) Composition and physicochemical properties of locust bean gum extracted from whole seeds by acid or water dehulling pre-treatment. Food Hydrocoll 22: 807-818. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2007.03.007
|
| [35] | Liu J, Willför S, Xu C (2014) A review of bioactive plant polysaccharides: Biological activities, functionalizatison, and biomedical applications. Bioact Carbohydr Diet Fibre 5: 31-61. |
| [36] |
Arruda IRS, Albuquerque PBS, Santos GRC, et al. (2015) Structure and rheological properties of a xyloglucan extracted from Hymenaea courbaril var. courbaril seeds. Int J Biol Macromol 73: 31-38. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2014.11.001
|
| [37] |
Yarnpakdee S, Benjakul S, Kingwascharapong P (2015) Physico-chemical and gel properties of agar from Gracilaria tenuistipitata from the lake of Songkhla, Thailand. Food Hydrocoll 51: 217-226. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2015.05.004
|
| [38] |
Prajapati VD, Maheriya PM, Jani GK, et al. (2014) Carrageenan: A natural seaweed polysaccharide and its applications. Carbohydr Polym 105: 97-112. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.01.067
|
| [39] | Rinaudo M (2007) Seaweed polysaccharides, In: Kamerling JP, Comprehensive Glycoscience, vol. 4, Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2: 691-735. |
| [40] |
Silva MF, Fornari RCG, Mazutti M, et al. (2009) Production and characterization of xantham gum by Xanthomonas campestris using cheese whey as sole carbon source. J Food Eng 90: 119-123. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2008.06.010
|
| [41] |
Kumari S, Rath PK (2014) Extraction and Characterization of Chitin and Chitosan from (Labeo rohit) Fish Scales. Procedia Mat Sci 6: 482-489. doi: 10.1016/j.mspro.2014.07.062
|
| [42] |
Sadhasivam G, Muthuvel A (2014) Isolation and characterization of hyaluronic acid from marine organisms. Adv Food Nutr Res 72: 61-77. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-800269-8.00004-X
|
| [43] |
Vázquez JA, Rodríguez-Amado I, Montemayor MI, et al. (2013) Chondroitin sulfate, hyaluronic acid and chitin/chitosan production using marine waste sources: Characteristics, applications and eco-friendly processes: A review. Mar Drugs 11: 747-774. doi: 10.3390/md11030747
|
| [44] | Ström A, Boers HM, Koppert R, et al. (2009) Physico-chemical properties of hydrocolloids determine their appetite effects, In Williams PA, Phillips GO, Gums and stabilisers for the food industry. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, 341-355. |
| [45] |
Rinaudo M, Moroni A (2009) Rheological behavior of binary and ternary mixtures of polysaccharides in aqueous medium. Food Hydrocoll 23: 1720-1728. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2009.01.012
|
| [46] |
Priya MV, Sabitha M, Jayakumar R (2016) Colloidal chitin nanogels: A plethora of applications under one shell. Carbohydr Polym 136: 609-617. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.09.054
|
| [47] | Rinaudo M (2008) Main properties and current applications of some polysaccharides as biomaterials. Polym Int 57: 397-430. |
| [48] | Dea ICM, Morrison A (1975) Chemistry and interactions of seed galactomannans. Adv Carbohydr Chem 31: 241-312. |
| [49] |
Srivastava M, Kapoor VP (2005) Seed galactomannans: An overview. Chem Biodivers 2: 295-317. doi: 10.1002/cbdv.200590013
|
| [50] |
Prado BM, Kim S, Ozen BF, et al. (2005) Differentiation of carbohydrate gums and mixtures using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and chemometrics. J Agric Food Chem 53: 2823-2829. doi: 10.1021/jf0485537
|
| [51] |
Dakia PA, Blecker C, Robert C, et al. (2008) Composition and physicochemical properties of locust bean gum extracted from whole seeds by acid or water dehulling pre-treatment. Food Hydrocoll 22: 807-818. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2007.03.007
|
| [52] | Vendruscolo CW, Andreazza IF, Ganter JLMS, et al. Xanthan and galactomannan (from M. scabrella) matrix tablets for oral controlled delivery of theophylline. Int J Pharm 296:1-11. |
| [53] |
Daas P, Grolle K, Vliet T, et al. (2002) Toward the recognition of structure–function relationships in galactomannans. J Agric Food Chem 50: 4282-4289. doi: 10.1021/jf011399t
|
| [54] | Pollard MA, Eder B, Fischer P, et al. (2010) Characterization of galactomannans isolated from legume endosperms of Caesalpinioideae and Faboideae subfamilies by multidetection aqueous SEC. Carbohydr Polym 79: 70-84. |
| [55] |
Jiang J-X, Jian H-l, Cristhian C (2011) Structural and thermal characterization of galactomannans from genus Gleditsia seeds as potential food gum substitutes. J Sci Food Agric 91: 732-737. doi: 10.1002/jsfa.4243
|
| [56] | Reid JSG, Edwards ME (1995) Galactomannans and other cell wall storage polysaccharides in seeds, In Stephen AM, Food Polysaccharides and Their Applications, New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. |
| [57] |
Singh VK, Banerjee I, Agarwal T, et al. (2014) Guar gum and sesame oil based novel bigels for controlled drug delivery. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 123: 582-592. doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2014.09.056
|
| [58] |
Soares PAG, Seixas JRPC, Albuquerque JRPC, et al. (2015) Development and characterization of a new hydrogel based on galactomannan and k-carrageenan. Carbohydr Polym 134: 673-679. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.08.042
|
| [59] |
Antoniou J, Liu F, Majeed H, et al. (2014) Physicochemical and thermomechanical characterization of tara gum edible films: Effect of polyols as plasticizers. Carbohydr Polym 111: 359-365. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.04.005
|
| [60] |
Antoniou J, Liu F, Majeed H, et al. (2015) Characterization of tara gum edible films incorporated with bulk chitosan and chitosan nanoparticles: A comparative study. Food Hydrocoll 44: 309-319. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2014.09.023
|
| [61] | Rodrigues DC, Cunha AP, Brito ES, et al. (2016) Mesquite seed gum and palm fruit oil emulsion edible films: Influence of oil content and sonication. Food Hydrocoll 56: 227-235. |
| [62] |
Sandolo C, Bulone D, Mangione MR, et al. (2010) Synergistic interaction of Locust Bean Gum and Xanthan investigated by rheology and light scattering. Carbohyd Polym 82: 733-741. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2010.05.044
|
| [63] |
Grisel M, Aguni Y, Renou F, et al. (2015) Impact of fine structure of galactomannans on their interactions with xanthan: Two co-existing mechanisms to explain the synergy. Food Hydrocoll 51: 449-458. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2015.05.041
|
| [64] |
Koop HS, Freitas RA, Souza MM, et al. (2015) Topical curcumin-loaded hydrogels obtained using galactomannan from Schizolobium parahybae and xanthan. Carbohydr Polym 116: 229-236. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.07.043
|
| [65] | Sousa AMM, Gonçalves MP (2015) The influence of locust bean gum on native and alkali-modified agar gels. Food Hydrocoll 44: 451-470. |
| [66] |
Martins JT, Cerqueira MA, Bourbon AI, et al. (2012) Synergistic effects between k-carrageenan and locust bean gum on physicochemical properties of edible films made thereof. Food Hydrocoll 29: 280-289. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2012.03.004
|
| [67] |
Albuquerque PBS, Silva CS, Soares PAG, et al. (2016) Investigating a galactomannan gel obtained from Cassia grandis seeds as immobilizing matrix for Cramoll lectin. Int J Biol Macromol 86: 454-461. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.01.107
|
| [68] |
Almeida RR, Magalhúes HS, Souza JRR, et al. (2015) Exploring the potential of Dimorphandra gardneriana galactomannans as drug delivery systems. Ind Crops Prod 69: 284-289. doi: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2015.02.041
|
| [69] |
Klemm D, Heublein B, Fink HP (2005) Cellulose: fascinating biopolymer and sustainable raw material. Angew Chem Int Ed 44: 3358-3393. doi: 10.1002/anie.200460587
|
| [70] | Lee T-W, Jeong YG (2015) Regenerated cellulose/multiwalled carbon nanotube composite films with efficient electric heating performance. Carbohydr Polym 133: 456-463. |
| [71] |
Ullah MW, Ul-Islam M, Khan S, et al. (2016) Structural and physico-mechanical characterization of bio-cellulose produced by a cell-free system. Carbohydr Polym 136: 908-916. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.10.010
|
| [72] |
Dayal MS, Catchmark JM (2016) Mechanical and structural property analysis of bacterial cellulose composites. Carbohydr Polym 144: 447-453. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.02.055
|
| [73] |
Chen P, Cho SY, Jin HJ (2010) Modification and applications of bacterial celluloses in polymer science. Macromol Res 18: 309-320. doi: 10.1007/s13233-010-0404-5
|
| [74] | Keshk SM (2014) Bacterial cellulose production and its industrial applications. J Bioprocess Biotech 4: 1-10. |
| [75] | Nobles DR, Romanovicz DK, Brown Jr RM (2001) Cellulose in Cyanobacteria. Origin of Vascular Plant Cellulose Synthase?. Plant Physiol 127: 529-542. |
| [76] |
Castro C, Cordeiro N, Faria M, et al. (2015) In-situ glyoxalization during biosynthesis of bacterial cellulose. Carbohydr Polym 126: 32-39. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.03.014
|
| [77] |
Kiziltas EE, Kiziltas A, Blumentritt M, et al. (2015) )Biosynthesis of bacterial cellulose in the presence of different nanoparticles to create novel hybrid materials. Carbohydr Polym 129: 148-155. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.04.039
|
| [78] |
Römling U, Galperin MY (2015) Bacterial cellulose biosynthesis: Diversity of operons, subunits, products, and functions. Trends Microbiol 23: 545-557. doi: 10.1016/j.tim.2015.05.005
|
| [79] |
Brinchi L, Cotana F, Fortunati E, et al. (2013) Production of nanocrystalline cellulose from lignocellulosic biomass: Technology and applications. Carbohydr Polym 94: 154-169. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.01.033
|
| [80] |
Moon RJ, Martini A, Nairn J, et al. (2011) Cellulose nanomaterials review: structure, properties and nanocomposites. Chem Soc Rev 40: 3941-3994. doi: 10.1039/c0cs00108b
|
| [81] |
Peng BL, Dhar N, Liu HL, et al. (2011) Chemistry and applications of nanocrystalline cellulose and its derivatives: A nanotechnology perspective. Can J Chem Eng 89: 1191-1206. doi: 10.1002/cjce.20554
|
| [82] |
Fujisawa S, Okita Y, Fukuzumi H, et al. (2011) Preparation and characterization of TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofibril films with free carboxyl groups. Carbohydr Polym 84: 579-583. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2010.12.029
|
| [83] |
Zhang Q, Lin D, Yao S (2015) Review on biomedical and bioengineering applications of cellulose sulfate. Carbohydr Polym 132: 311-322. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.06.041
|
| [84] | Pérez S, Samain D (2010) Structure and engineering of celluloses, In: Derek H, Advances in carbohydrate chemistry and biochemistry, Vol 64, New York: Academic Press, 25-116. |
| [85] | Kono H, Fujita S (2012) Biodegradable superabsorbent hydrogels derived from cellulose by esterification crosslinking with 1,2,3,4-butanetetracarboxylic dianhydride. Carbohydr Polym 87: 2582-2588. |
| [86] |
Ramírez JAA, Suriano CJ, Cerrutti P, et al. (2014) Surface esterification of cellulose nanofibers by a simple organocatalytic methodology. Carbohydr Polym 114: 416-423. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.08.020
|
| [87] | Littunen K, De Castro JS, Samoylenko A, et al. (2016) Synthesis of cationized nanofibrillated cellulose and its antimicrobial properties. Eur Polym J 75: 116-124. |
| [88] |
Genyk Y, Kato T, Pomposelli JJ, et al. (2016) Fibrin sealant patch (TachoSil) vs oxidized regenerated cellulose patch (Surgicel Original) for the secondary treatment of local bleeding in patients undergoing hepatic resection: a randomized controlled trial. J Am Coll Surg 222: 261-268. doi: 10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2015.12.007
|
| [89] | Wu YD, He JM, Huang YD, et al. (2012) Oxidation of regenerated cellulose with nitrogen dioxide/carbon tetrachloride. Fibers Polym 13: 576-581. |
| [90] |
Zacharias T, Ferreira N (2012) Carrier-bound fibrin sealant compared to oxidized cellulose application after liver resection. HPB 14: 839-347. doi: 10.1111/j.1477-2574.2012.00560.x
|
| [91] |
Bedane AH, Eić M, Farmahini-Farahani M, et al. (2015) Water vapor transport properties of regenerated cellulose and nanofibrillated cellulose films. J Memb Sci 493: 46-57. doi: 10.1016/j.memsci.2015.06.009
|
| [92] |
Stevanic JS, Bergström EM, Gatenholm P, et al. (2012) Arabinoxylan/nanofibrillated cellulose composite films. J Mater Sci 47: 6724-6732. doi: 10.1007/s10853-012-6615-8
|
| [93] |
Biliuta G, Fras L, Drobota M, et al. (2013) Comparison study of TEMPO and phthalimide-N-oxyl (PINO) radicals on oxidation efficiency toward cellulose. Carbohydr Polym 91: 502-507. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2012.08.047
|
| [94] |
Liu P, Oksman K, Mathew AP (2016) Surface adsorption and self-assembly of Cu(II) ions on TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofibers in aqueous media. J Colloid Interface Sci 464:175-182. doi: 10.1016/j.jcis.2015.11.033
|
| [95] |
Huang M, Chen F, Jiang Z, et al. (2013) Preparation of TEMPO-oxidized cellulose/amino acid/nanosilver biocomposite film and its antibacterial activity. Int J Biol Macromol 62:608-613. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2013.10.018
|
| [96] |
Hakalahti M, Salminen A, Seppälä J, et al. (2015) Effect of interfibrillar PVA bridging on water stability and mechanical properties of TEMPO/NaClO2 oxidized cellulosic nanofibril films. Carbohydr Polym 126: 78-82. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.03.007
|
| [97] | Barsbay M, Güven O, Kodama Y. (2015) Amine functionalization of cellulose surface grafted with glycidyl methacrylate by γ -initiated RAFT polymerization. Radiat Phys Chem 124: 140-144. |
| [98] |
Carlmark A, Larsson E, Malmström E. (2012) Grafting of cellulose by ring-opening polymerisation - A review. Eur Polym J 48: 1646-1659. doi: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2012.06.013
|
| [99] |
Lizundia E, Fortunati E, Dominici F, et al. (2016) PLLA-grafted cellulose nanocrystals: Role of the CNC content and grafting on the PLA bionanocomposite film properties. Carbohydr Polym 142: 105-113. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.01.041
|
| [100] |
Madrid JF, Abad LV (2015) Modification of microcrystalline cellulose by gamma radiation-induced grafting. Radiat Phys Chem 115: 143-147. doi: 10.1016/j.radphyschem.2015.06.025
|
| [101] |
Kang H, Liu R, Huang Y (2015) Graft modification of cellulose: Methods, properties and applications. Polymer 70: A1-A16. doi: 10.1016/j.polymer.2015.05.041
|
| [102] |
Oksman K, Aitomäki Y, Mathew AP, et al. (2016) Review of the recent developments in cellulose nanocomposite processing. Compos Part A 83: 2-18. doi: 10.1016/j.compositesa.2015.10.041
|
| [103] |
Fu L, Liu B, Meng L (2016) Comparative study of cellulose/Ag nanocomposites using four cellulose types. Mater Lett 171: 277-280. doi: 10.1016/j.matlet.2016.02.118
|
| [104] |
Li S, Fu L, Ma M, et al. (2012) Simultaneous microwave-assisted synthesis, characterization, thermal stability, and antimicrobial activity of cellulose/AgCl nanocomposites. Biomass Bioenergy 47: 516-521. doi: 10.1016/j.biombioe.2012.10.012
|
| [105] |
Deng F, Dong Y, Liu S, et al. (2016) Revealing the influences of cellulose on cellulose/SrF2 nanocomposites synthesized by microwave-assisted method. Ind Crops Prod 85: 258-265. doi: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2016.03.018
|
| [106] |
Deng F, Fu L-H, Ma M-G (2015) Microwave-assisted rapid synthesis and characterization of CaF2 particles-filled cellulose nanocomposites in ionic liquid. Carbohydr Polym 121: 163-168. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.12.033
|
| [107] |
Jia N, Li SM, Ma MG, et al. (2012) Rapid microwave-assisted fabrication of cellulose/F-substituted hydroxyapatite nanocomposites using green ionic liquids as additive. Mater Lett 68: 44-56. doi: 10.1016/j.matlet.2011.10.027
|
| [108] |
Huang W, Wang Y, Chen C, et al. (2016) Fabrication of flexible self-standing all-cellulose nanofibrous composite membranes for virus removal. Carbohydr Polym 143: 9-17. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.02.011
|
| [109] | Luo X, Zhang H, Cao Z, et al. (2016) A simple route to develop transparent doxorubicin-loaded nanodiamonds/cellulose nanocomposite membranes as potential wound dressings. Carbohydr Polym 143: 231-238. |
| [110] | Kiyazar S, Aghazadeh J, Sadeghi A, et al. (2016) In vitro evaluation for apatite-forming ability of cellulose-based nanocomposite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. Int J Biol Macromol 86: 434-442. |
| [111] |
Blank CE, Hinman NW (2016) Cyanobacterial and algal growth on chitin as a source of nitrogen; ecological, evolutionary, and biotechnological implications. Algal Res 15: 152-163. doi: 10.1016/j.algal.2016.02.014
|
| [112] |
Giji S, Arumugam M (2014) Isolation and characterization of hyaluronic acid from marine organisms. Adv Food Nutr Res 72: 61-77. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-800269-8.00004-X
|
| [113] |
Jiang Y, Meng X, Wu Z, et al. (2016) Modified chitosan thermosensitive hydrogel enables sustained and efficient anti-tumor therapy via intratumoral injection. Carbohydr Polym 144: 245-253. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.02.059
|
| [114] | Younes I, Hajji S, Frachet V, et al. (2014) Chitin extraction from shrimp shell using enzymatic treatment. Antitumor, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of chitosan. Int J Biol Macromol 69: 489-498. |
| [115] |
Shankar S, Reddy JP, Rhim J-W, et al. (2015) Preparation, characterization, and antimicrobial activity of chitin nanofibrils reinforced carrageenan nanocomposite films. Carbohydr Polym 117: 468-475. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.10.010
|
| [116] |
Ilnicka A, Walczyk M, Lukaszewicz JP (2015) The fungicidal properties of the carbon materials obtained from chitin and chitosan promoted by copper salts. Mater Sci Eng C 52: 31-36. doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2015.03.037
|
| [117] |
Hoseini MHM, Moradi M, Alimohammadian MH, et al. (2016) Immunotherapeutic effects of chitin in comparison with chitosan against Leishmania major infection. Parasitol Int 65: 99-104. doi: 10.1016/j.parint.2015.10.007
|
| [118] |
Munster JM, Sanders P, Kate GA, et al. (2015) Kinetic characterization of Aspergillus niger chitinase CfcI using a HPAEC-PAD method for native chitin oligosaccharides. Carbohydr Res 407: 73-78. doi: 10.1016/j.carres.2015.01.014
|
| [119] |
Usman A, Zia KM, Zuber M, et al. (2016) Chitin and chitosan based polyurethanes: A review of recent advances and prospective biomedical applications. Int J Biol Macromol 86: 630-645. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.02.004
|
| [120] |
Tomihata K, Ikada Y (1997) In vitro and in vivo degradation of films of chitin and its deacetylated derivatives. Biomaterials 18: 567-575. doi: 10.1016/S0142-9612(96)00167-6
|
| [121] |
Naseri N, Algan C, Jacobs V, et al. (2014) Electrospun chitosan-based nanocomposite mats reinforced with chitin nanocrystals for wound dressing. Carbohydr Polym 109: 7-15. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.03.031
|
| [122] |
Xia G, Lang X, Kong M, et al. (2016) Surface fluid-swellable chitosan fiber as the wound dressing material. Carbohydr Polym 136: 860-866. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.09.074
|
| [123] |
Busilacchi A, Gigante A, Mattioli-Belmonte M, et al. (2013) Chitosan stabilizes platelet growth factors and modulates stem cell differentiation toward tissue regeneration. Carbohydr Polym 98: 665-676. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.06.044
|
| [124] |
Kanimozhi K, Basha SK, Kumari VS (2016) Processing and characterization of chitosan/PVA and methylcellulose porous scaffolds for tissue engineering. Mater Sci Eng C 61: 484-491. doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2015.12.084
|
| [125] |
Morgado PI, Aguiar-Ricardo A, Correia IJ (2015) Asymmetric membranes as ideal wound dressings: An overview on production methods, structure, properties and performance relationship. J Membr Sci 490: 139-151. doi: 10.1016/j.memsci.2015.04.064
|
| [126] |
Chen K-Y, Liao W-J, Kuo S-M, et al. (2009) Asymmetric Chitosan Membrane Containing Collagen I Nanospheres for Skin Tissue Engineering. Biomacromolecules 10: 1642-1649. doi: 10.1021/bm900238b
|
| [127] |
Lih E, Lee JS, Park KM, et al. (2012) Rapidly curable chitosan-PEG hydrogels as tissue adhesives for hemostasis and wound healing. Acta Biomater 8: 3261-3269. doi: 10.1016/j.actbio.2012.05.001
|
| [128] |
Ferraro V, Cruz IB, Jorge RF, et al. (2010) Valorisation of natural extracts from marine source focused on marine by-products: a review. Food Res Int 43: 2221-2233. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2010.07.034
|
| [129] |
Medeiros BGDS, Pinheiro AC, Carneiro-da-cunha MG, et al. (2012) Development and characterization of a nanomultilayer coating of pectin and chitosan - Evaluation of its gas barrier properties and application on ‘Tommy atkins' mangoes. J Food Eng 110: 457-464. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2011.12.021
|
| [130] |
Souza MP, Vaz AFM, Silva HD, et al. (2015) Development and characterization of an active chitosan-based film containing quercetin. Food Bioprocess Technol 8: 2183-2219. doi: 10.1007/s11947-015-1580-2
|
| [131] |
Min SH, Park KC, Yeom Y (2014) Chitosan-mediated non-viral gene delivery with improved serum stability and reduced cytotoxicity. Biotechnol Bioprocess Eng 19: 1077-1082. doi: 10.1007/s12257-014-0450-5
|
| [132] |
Wan ACA, Tai BCU (2013) CHITIN - A promising biomaterial for tissue engineering and stem cell technologies. Biotechnol Adv 31: 1776-1785. doi: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2013.09.007
|
| [133] |
Pangon A, Saesoo S, Saengkrit N, et al. (2016) Hydroxyapatite-hybridized chitosan/chitin whisker bionanocomposite fibers for bone tissue engineering applications. Carbohydr Polym 144: 419-427. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.02.053
|
| [134] |
Kumar PTS, Ramya C, Jayakumar R, et al. (2013) Drug delivery and tissue engineering applications of biocompatible pectin - chitin / nano CaCO3 composite scaffolds. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 106:109-116. doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2013.01.048
|
| [135] |
Kanimozhi K, Basha SK, Kumari VS (2016) Processing and characterization of chitosan/PVA and methylcellulose porous scaffolds for tissue engineering. Mater Sci Eng C 61: 484-491. doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2015.12.084
|
| [136] |
Zhao L, Wu Y, Chen S, et al. (2015) Preparation and characterization of cross-linked carboxymethyl chitin porous membrane scaffold for biomedical applications. Carbohydr Polym 126:150-155. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.02.050
|
| [137] |
Smitha KT, Nisha N, Maya S, et al. (2015) Delivery of rifampicin-chitin nanoparticles into the intracellular compartment of polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Int J Biol Macromol 74:36-43. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2014.11.006
|
| [138] |
Geetha P, Sivaram AJ, Jayakumar R, et al. (2016) Integration of in silico modeling, prediction by binding energy and experimental approach to study the amorphous chitin nanocarriers for cancer drug delivery. Carbohydr Polym 142: 240-249. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.01.059
|
| [139] | Smitha KT, Anitha A, Furuike T, et al. (2013) In vitro evaluation of paclitaxel loaded amorphous chitin nanoparticles for colon cancer drug delivery. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 104: 245-253. |
| [140] |
Dev A, Mohan JC, Sreeja V, et al. (2010) Novel carboxymethyl chitin nanoparticles for cancer drug delivery applications. Carbohydr Polym 79: 1073-1079. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2009.10.038
|
| [141] | Chang PR, Jian R, Yu J, et al. (2010) Starch-based composites reinforced with novel chitin nanoparticles. Carbohydr Polym 80: 420-425. |
| [142] |
Dhananasekaran S, Palanivel R, Pappu S (2016) Adsorption of Methylene Blue, Bromophenol Blue, and Coomassie Brilliant Blue by α-chitin nanoparticles. J Adv Res 7: 113-124. doi: 10.1016/j.jare.2015.03.003
|
| [143] |
Hamed I, Özogul F, Regenstein JM (2016) Industrial applications of crustacean by-products (chitin, chitosan, and chitooligosaccharides): A review. Trends Food Sci Technol 48: 40-50. doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2015.11.007
|
| [144] |
Chantarasataporn P, Tepkasikul P, Kingcha Y, et al. (2014) Water-based oligochitosan and nanowhisker chitosan as potential food preservatives for shelf-life extension of minced pork. Food Chem 159: 463-470. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.03.019
|
| [145] |
Farajzadeh F, Motamedzadegan A, Shahidi S-A, et al. (2016) The Effect of Chitosan-Gelatin Coating on the Quality of Shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) under Refrigerated Condition. Food Control 67: 163-170. doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.02.040
|
| [146] |
Caro N, Medina E, Díaz-Dosque M, et al. (2016) Novel active packaging based on films of chitosan and chitosan/quinoa protein printed with chitosan-tripolyphosphate-thymol nanoparticles via thermal ink-jet printing. Food Hydrocoll 52: 520-532. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2015.07.028
|
| [147] |
Carvalho RL, Cabral MF, Germano TA, et al. (2016) Chitosan coating with transcinnamaldehyde improves structural integrity and antioxidant metabolism of fresh-cut melon. Postharvest Biol Technol 113: 29-39. doi: 10.1016/j.postharvbio.2015.11.004
|
| [148] |
Genskowsky E, Puente LA, Pèrez-Álvarez JA, et al. (2015) Assessment of antibacterial and antioxidant properties of chitosan edible films incorporated with maqui berry (Aristotelia chilensis). LWT Food Sci Technol 64: 1057-1062. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2015.07.026
|
| [149] |
Sun Q, Si F, Xiong L, et al. (2013) Effect of dry heating with ionic gums on physicochemical properties of starch. Food Chem 136: 1421-145. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.09.061
|
| [150] | Vieira JM, Flores-López ML, de Rodríguez DJ, et al. (2016) Effect of chitosan-Aloe vera coating on postharvest quality of blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum) fruit. Postharvest Biol Technol 116: 88-97. |
| [151] |
Hernández-Valdepeña MA, Pedraza-Chaverri J, Gracia-Mora I, et al. (2016) Suppression of the tert-butylhydroquinone toxicity by its grafting onto chitosan and further cross-linking to agavin toward a novel antioxidant and prebiotic material. Food Chem 199: 485-491. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.12.042
|
| [152] |
Stenner R, Matubayasi N, Shimizu S (2016) Gelation of carrageenan: Effects of sugars and polyols. Food Hydrocoll 54: 284-292. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2015.10.007
|
| [153] |
Tavassoli-Kafrani E, Shekarchizadeh H, Masoudpour-Behabadi M (2016) Development of edible films and coatings from alginates and carrageenans. Carbohydr Polym 137: 360-374. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.10.074
|
| [154] |
Liang W, Mao X, Peng X, et al. (2014) Effects of sulfate group in red seaweed polysaccharides on anticoagulant activity and cytotoxicity. Carbohydr Polym 101: 776-785. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.10.010
|
| [155] |
Sudharsan S, Subhapradha N, Seedevi P, et al. (2015) Antioxidant and anticoagulant activity of sulfated polysaccharide from Gracilaria debilis (Forsskal). Int J Biol Macromol 81:1031-1038. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2015.09.046
|
| [156] | Chiu YH, Chan YL, Tsai LW, et al. (2012) Prevention of human enterovirus 71 infection by kappa carrageenan. Antiviral Res 95: 128-134. |
| [157] | Cosenza VA, Navarro DA, Pujol CA, et al. (2015) Partial and total C-6 oxidation of gelling carrageenans. Modulation of the antiviral activity with the anionic character. Carbohydr Polym 128: 199-206. |
| [158] |
El-Shitany NA, El-Bastawissy EA, El-Desoky K (2014) Ellagic acid protects against carrageenan-induced acute inflammation through inhibition of nuclear factor kappa B, inducible cyclooxygenase and proinflammatory cytokines and enhancement of interleukin-10 via an antioxidant mechanism. Int Immunopharmacol 19: 290-299. doi: 10.1016/j.intimp.2014.02.004
|
| [159] |
Yao Z, Wu H, Zhang S, et al. (2014) Enzymatic preparation of kappa-carrageenan oligosaccharides and their anti-angiogenic activity. Carbohydr Polym 101: 359-367. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.09.055
|
| [160] |
Yermak IM, Barabanova AO, Aminin DL, et al. (2012) Effects of structural peculiarities of carrageenans on their immunomodulatory and anticoagulant activities. Carbohydr Polym 87: 713-720. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2011.08.053
|
| [161] |
Bao X, Hayashi K, Li Y, et al. (2010) Novel agarose and agar fibers: Fabrication and characterization. Mater Lett 64: 2435-2437. doi: 10.1016/j.matlet.2010.08.008
|
| [162] |
Hu J, Zhu Y, Tong H, et al. (2016) A detailed study of homogeneous agarose / hydroxyapatite nanocomposites for load-bearing bone tissue. Int J Biol Macromol 82: 134-143. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2015.09.077
|
| [163] |
Miguel SP, Ribeiro MP, Brancal H, et al. (2014) Thermoresponsive chitosan-agarose hydrogel for skin regeneration. Carbohydr Polym 111: 366-373. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.04.093
|
| [164] |
Varoni E, Tschon M, Palazzo B, et al. (2012) Agarose gel as biomaterial or scaffold for implantation surgery: characterization, histological and histomorphometric study on soft tissue response. Connect Tissue Res 53: 548-554. doi: 10.3109/03008207.2012.712583
|
| [165] |
Gonzalez JS, Ludueña LN, Ponce A, et al. (2014) Poly(vinyl alcohol)/cellulose nanowhiskers nanocomposite hydrogels for potential wound dressings. Mater Sci Eng C 34: 54-61. doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2013.10.006
|
| [166] |
Wang J, Hu H, Yang Z, et al. (2016) IPN hydrogel nanocomposites based on agarose and ZnO with antifouling and bactericidal properties. Mater Sci Eng C 61: 376-386. doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2015.12.023
|
| [167] | Yi Y, Neufeld RJ, Poncelet D (2005) Immobilization of cells in Polysaccharide gels, In: Dumitriu S., Polysacharides. Structural diversity and functional versatility, 2d ed., New York: Marcel Dekker, 867-891. |
| [168] |
Li XQ, Li Q, Gong FL, et al. (2015) Preparation of large-sized highly uniform agarose beads by novel rotating membrane emulsification. J Membr Sci 476: 30-39. doi: 10.1016/j.memsci.2014.11.017
|
| [169] |
Droce A, Sørensen JL, Giese H, et al. (2013) Glass bead cultivation of fungi: Combining the best of liquid and agar media. J Microbiol Methods 94: 343-346. doi: 10.1016/j.mimet.2013.07.005
|
| [170] |
Ganesan M, Reddy CRK, Jha B (2015) Impact of cultivation on growth rate and agar content of Gelidiella acerosa (Gelidiales, Rhodophyta). Algal Res 12: 398-404. doi: 10.1016/j.algal.2015.10.001
|
| [171] |
Griffitt KJ, Grimes DJ (2013) A novel agar formulation for isolation and direct enumeration of Vibrio vulnificus from oyster tissue. J Microbiol Methods 94: 98-102. doi: 10.1016/j.mimet.2013.04.012
|
| [172] | Seo BY, Park J, Huh IY, et al. (2016) Agarose hydrolysis by two-stage enzymatic process and bioethanol production from the hydrolysate. Process Biochem In press. |
| [173] |
Giménez B, López de Lacey A, Pérez-Santín E, et al. (2013) Release of active compounds from agar and agar-gelatin films with green tea extract. Food Hydrocoll 30: 264-271. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2012.05.014
|
| [174] | Sousa AMM, Souza HKS, Latona N, et al. (2014) Choline chloride based ionic liquid analogues as tool for the fabrication of agar films with improved mechanical properties. Carbohydr Polym 111: 206-214. |
| [175] |
Sousa AMM, Gonçalves MP (2015) The influence of locust bean gum on native and alkali-modified agar gels. Food Hydrocoll 44: 461-470. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2014.10.020
|
| [176] | Oun AA, Rhim J-W (2015) Effect of post-treatments and concentration of cotton linter cellulose nanocrystals on the properties of agar-based nanocomposite films. Carbohydr Polym 134: 20-29. |
| [177] |
Shankar S, Rhim JW (2016) Preparation of nanocellulose from micro-crystalline cellulose: The effect on the performance and properties of agar-based composite films. Carbohydr Polym 135: 18-26. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.08.082
|
| [178] | Vejdan A, Ojagh SM, Adeli A, et al. (2016) Effect of TiO2 nanoparticles on the physico-mechanical and ultraviolet light barrier properties of fish gelatin/agar bilayer film. LWT Food Sci Technol 71: 88-95. |
| [179] | Madera-Santana TJ, Freile-Pelegrín Y, Azamar-Barrios JA (2014) Physicochemical and morphological properties of plasticized poly(vinyl alcohol)-agar biodegradable films. Int J Biol Macromol 69:176-184. |
| [180] |
Tian H, Xu G, Yang B, et al. (2011) Microstructure and mechanical properties of soy protein/agar blend films: Effect of composition and processing methods. J Food Eng 107: 21-26. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2011.06.008
|
| [181] |
Kestwal RM, Bagal-Kestwal D, Chiang B-H (2015) Fenugreek hydrogel-agarose composite entrapped gold nanoparticles for acetylcholinesterase based biosensor for carbamates detection. Anal Chim Acta 886: 143-150. doi: 10.1016/j.aca.2015.06.004
|
| [182] |
Rhim JW, Wang LF (2013) Mechanical and water barrier properties of agar/k-carrageenan/konjac glucomannan ternary blend biohydrogel films. Carbohydr Polym 96: 71-81. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.03.083
|
| [183] |
Le Goff KJ, Gaillard C, Helbert W, et al. (2015) Rheological study of reinforcement of agarose hydrogels by cellulose nanowhiskers. Carbohydr Polym 116: 117-123. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.04.085
|
| [184] |
Campo VL, Kawano DF, Silva DB, et al. (2009) Carrageenans: Biological properties, chemical modifications and structural analysis - A review. Carbohydr Polym 77: 167-180. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2009.01.020
|
| [185] |
Weiner ML (2016) Parameters and pitfalls to consider in the conduct of food additive research, Carrageenan as a case study. Food Chem Toxicol 87: 31-44. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2015.11.014
|
| [186] |
Zhang Z, Zhang R, Chen L, et al. (2016) Encapsulation of lactase (b-galactosidase) into k-carrageenan-based hydrogel beads: Impact of environmental conditions on enzyme activity. Food Chem 200: 69-75. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.01.014
|
| [187] |
Pinheiro AC, Bourbon AI, Medeiros BGDS, et al. (2012) Interactions between κ-carrageenan and chitosan in nanolayered coatings - Structural and transport properties. Carbohydr Polym 87: 1081-1090. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2011.08.040
|
| [188] |
Pinheiro AC, Bourbon AI, Quintas MAC, et al. (2012) k-carrageenan/chitosan nanolayered coating for controlled release of a model bioactive compound. Innov Food Sci Emerg 16:227-232. doi: 10.1016/j.ifset.2012.06.004
|
| [189] | Rhim J (2013) Effect of PLA lamination on performance characteristics of agar/κ-carrageenan/clay bio-nanocomposite film. Food Res Int 51: 714-722. |
| [190] | Rhim J, Wang L (2014) Preparation and characterization of carrageenan-based nanocomposite films reinforced with clay mineral and silver nanoparticles. Appl Clay Sci 98: 174-181. |
| [191] |
Benard C, Cultrone A, Michel C (2010) Degraded carrageenan causing colitis in rats induces TNF secretion and ICAM-1 upregulation in monocytes through NF-kB activation. Plos One 5: e8666. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0008666
|
| [192] |
Mckim JM, Wilga PC, Pregenzer JF, et al. (2015) The common food additive carrageenan is not a ligand for Toll-Like-Receptor 4 (TLR4) in an HEK293-TLR4 reporter cell-line model. Food Chem Toxicol 78: 153-158. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2015.01.003
|
| [193] |
Weiner ML (2014) Food additive carrageenan: Part II: A critical review of carrageenan in vivo safety studies. Crit Rev Toxicol 44: 244-269. doi: 10.3109/10408444.2013.861798
|
| [194] | De Souza RR, Bretanha LC, Dalmarco EM, et al. (2015) Modulatory effect of Senecio brasiliensis (Spreng) Less. in a murine model of inflammation induced by carrageenan into the pleural cavity. J Ethnopharmacol 168: 373-379. |
| [195] |
Matsumoto K, Obara S, Kuroda Y, et al. (2015) Anti-inflammatory effects of linezolid on carrageenan-induced paw edema in rats. J Infect Chemother 21: 889-891. doi: 10.1016/j.jiac.2015.08.004
|
| [196] |
Shalini V, Jayalekshmi A, Helen A (2015) Mechanism of anti-inflammatory effect of tricin, a flavonoid isolated from Njavara rice bran in LPS induced hPBMCs and carrageenan induced rats. Mol Immunol 66: 229-239. doi: 10.1016/j.molimm.2015.03.004
|
| [197] |
Singh V, Tiwari S, Sharma AK, et al. (2007) Removal of lead from aqueous solutions using Cassia grandis seed gum-graft-poly(methylmethacrylate). J Colloid Interface Sci 316: 224-232. doi: 10.1016/j.jcis.2007.07.061
|
| [198] |
Solanki HK, Shah DA, Maheriya PM, et al. (2015) Evaluation of anti-inflammatory activity of probiotic on carrageenan-induced paw edema in Wistar rats. Int J Biol Macromol 72: 1277-1282. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2014.09.059
|
| [199] |
Sokolova EV, Bogdanovich LN, Ivanova TB, et al. (2014) Effect of carrageenan food supplement on patients with cardiovascular disease results in normalization of lipid profile and moderate modulation of immunity system markers. Pharmanutrition 2: 33-37. doi: 10.1016/j.phanu.2014.02.001
|
| [200] | Ngo DH, Kim SK (2013) Sulfated polysaccharides as bioactive agents from marine algae. Int J Biol Macromol 62: 70-75. |
| [201] | Abad LV, Relleve LS, Racadio CDT, et al. (2013) Antioxidant activity potential of gamma irradiated carrageenan. Appl Radiat Isot 79: 73-79. |
| [202] |
Relleve L, Abad L (2015) Characterization and antioxidant properties of alcoholic extracts from gamma irradiated k-carrageenan. Radiat Phys Chem 112: 40-48. doi: 10.1016/j.radphyschem.2015.02.028
|
| [203] |
Sun Y, Yang B, Wu Y, et al. (2015) Structural characterization and antioxidant activities of k-carrageenan oligosaccharides degraded by different methods. Food Chem 178: 311-318. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.01.105
|
| [204] |
Niu T, Zhang D, Chen H, et al. (2015) Modulation of the binding of basic fibroblast growth factor and heparanase activity by purified l-carrageenan oligosaccharides. Carbohydr Polym 125: 76-84. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.02.069
|
| [205] |
Yao Z, Wu H, Zhang S (2014) Enzymatic preparation of k-carrageenan oligosaccharides and their anti-angiogenic activity. Carbohydr Polym 101: 359-367. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.09.055
|
| [206] |
De Araújo CA, Noseda MD, Cipriani TR, et al. (2013) Selective sulfation of carrageenans and the influence of sulfate regiochemistry on anticoagulant properties. Carbohydr Polym 91: 483-491. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2012.08.034
|
| [207] |
Selvakumaran S, Muhamad II (2015) Evaluation of kappa carrageenan as potential carrier for floating drug delivery system: Effect of cross linker. Int J Pharm 496: 323-331. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2015.10.005
|
| [208] | Sun W, Saldaña MDA, Zhao Y, et al. (2016) Hydrophobic lappaconitine loaded into iota-carrageenan by one step self-assembly. Carbohydr Polym 137: 231-238. |
| [209] | Pairatwachapun S, Paradee N, Sirivat A. (2016) Controlled release of acetylsalicylic acid from polythiophene/carrageenan hydrogel via electrical stimulation. Carbohydr Polym 137: 214-221. |
| [210] |
Lohani A, Singh G, Sankar S, et al. (2016) Tailored-interpenetrating polymer network beads of k -carrageenan and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose for controlled drug delivery. J Drug Deliv Sci Tec 31: 53-64. doi: 10.1016/j.jddst.2015.11.005
|
| [211] |
Carneiro-da-Cunha MG, Cerqueira MA, Souza BWS, et al. (2010) Physical and thermal properties of a chitosan/alginate nanolayered PET film. Carbohydr Polym 82: 153-159. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2010.04.043
|
| [212] |
Dange-Delbaere C, Buron CC, Euvrard M, et al. (2016) Stability and cathodic electrophoretic deposition of polystyrene particles pre-coated with chitosan-alginate multilayer. Colloids Surfaces A Physicochem Eng Asp 493: 1-8. doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2016.01.003
|
| [213] | Belscak-Cvitanovic A, Komes D, Karlović S, et al. (2015) Improving the controlled delivery formulations of caffeine in alginate hydrogel beads combined with pectin, carrageenan, chitosan and psyllium. Food Chem 167: 378-386. |
| [214] |
Wang Z, Zhang X, Gu J, et al. (2014) Electrodeposition of alginate/chitosan layer-by-layer composite coatings on titanium substrates. Carbohydr Polym 103: 38-45. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.12.007
|
| [215] |
Seth A, Lafargue D, Poirier C, et al. (2014) Performance of magnetic chitosan-alginate core-shell beads for increasing the bioavailability of a low permeable drug. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 88: 374-381. doi: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2014.05.017
|
| [216] | Cheng HC, Chang CY, Hsieh FI, et al. (2011) Effects of tremella-alginate-liposome encapsulation on oral delivery of inactivated H5N3 vaccine. J Microencapsul 28: 55-61. |
| [217] |
Shin GH, Chung SK, Kim JT, et al. (2013) Preparation of chitosan-coated nanoliposomes for improving the mucoadhesive property of curcumin using the ethanol injection method. J Agric Food Chem 61: 11119-11126. doi: 10.1021/jf4035404
|
| [218] |
Liu W, Liu J, Li T, et al. (2013) Improved physical and in vitro digestion stability of a polyelectrolyte delivery system based on layer-by-layer self-assembly alginate-chitosan-coated nanoliposomes. J Agric Food Chem 61: 4133-4144. doi: 10.1021/jf305329n
|
| [219] |
Haidar ZS, Hamdy RC, Tabrizian M (2008) Protein release kinetics for core-shell hybrid nanoparticles based on the layer-by-layer assembly of alginate and chitosan on liposomes. Biomaterials 29: 1207-1215. doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2007.11.012
|
| [220] |
Liu W, Liu W, Ye A, et al. (2016) Environmental stress stability of microencapsules based on liposomes decorated with chitosan and sodium alginate. Food Chem 196: 396-404. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.09.050
|
| [221] | Martins AF, Monteiro JP, Bonafé EG, et al. (2015) Bactericidal activity of hydrogel beads based on N,N,N-trimethyl chitosan/alginate complexes loaded with silver nanoparticles. Chinese Chem Lett 26: 1129-1132. |
| [222] | Jaikumar D, Sajesh KM, Soumya S, et al. (2015) Injectable alginate-O-carboxymethyl chitosan/nano fibrin composite hydrogels for adipose tissue engineering. Int J Biol Macromol 74: 318-326. |
| [223] | Algul D, Sipahi H, Aydin A, et al. (2015) Biocompatibility of biomimetic multilayered alginate-chitosan/β-TCP scaffold for osteochondral tissue. Int J Biol Macromol 79: 363-369. |
| [224] |
Rivera MC, Pinheiro AC, Bourbon AI, et al. (2015) Hollow chitosan/alginate nanocapsules for bioactive compound delivery. Int J Biol Macromol 79: 95-102. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2015.03.003
|
| [225] |
Wang J-Z, Zhu Y-X, Ma H-C, et al. (2016) Developing multi-cellular tumor spheroid model (MCTS) in the chitosan/collagen/alginate (CCA) fibrous scaffold for anticancer drug screening. Mater Sci Eng C 62: 215-225. doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2016.01.045
|
| [226] | Trabelsi I, Ayadi D, Bejar W, et al. (2014) Effects of Lactobacillus plantarum immobilization in alginate coated with chitosan and gelatin on antibacterial activity. Int J Biol Macromol 64: 84-89. |
| [227] |
Gandomi H, Abbaszadeh S, Misaghi A, et al. (2016) Effect of chitosan-alginate encapsulation with inulin on survival of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG during apple juice storage and under simulated gastrointestinal conditions. LWT Food Sci Technol 69: 365-371. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2016.01.064
|
| [228] | Sáez MI, Barros AM, Vizcaíno AJ, et al. (2015) Effect of alginate and chitosan encapsulation on the fate of BSA protein delivered orally to gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata). Anim Feed Sci Technol 210: 114-124. |
| [229] | Ren Y, Xie H, Liu X, et al. (2016) Comparative investigation of the binding characteristics of poly-l-lysine and chitosan on alginate hydrogel. Int J Biol Macromol 84: 135-141. |
| [230] |
Lin J-H, Chen C-K, Wen S-P, et al. (2015) Poly-l-lactide/sodium alginate/chitosan microsphere hybrid scaffolds made with braiding manufacture and adhesion technique: Solution to the incongruence between porosity and compressive strength. Mater Sci Eng C 52: 111-120. doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2015.03.034
|
| [231] |
Kim H-L, Jung G-Y, Yoon J-H, et al. (2015) Preparation and characterization of nano-sized hydroxyapatite/alginate/chitosan composite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. Mater Sci Eng C 54: 20-25. doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2015.04.033
|
| [232] |
García-Ceja A, Mani-López E, Palou E, et al. (2015) Viability during refrigerated storage in selected food products and during simulated gastrointestinal conditions of individual and combined lactobacilli encapsulated in alginate or alginate-chitosan. LWT Food Sci Technol 63: 482-489. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2015.03.071
|
| [233] |
Strobel SA, Scher HB, Nitin N, et al. (2016) In situ cross-linking of alginate during spray-drying to microencapsulate lipids in powder. Food Hydrocoll 58: 141-149. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2016.02.031
|
| [234] | De'Nobili MD, Soria M, Martinefski MR, et al. (2016) Stability of L-(+)-ascorbic acid in alginate edible films loaded with citric acid for antioxidant food preservation. J Food Eng 175: 1-7. |
| [235] | Salvia-Trujillo L, Decker EA, McClements DJ (2016) Influence of an anionic polysaccharide on the physical and oxidative stability of omega-3 nanoemulsions: Antioxidant effects of alginate. Food Hydrocoll 52: 690-698. |
| [236] |
Da Cunha PLR, De Paula RCM, Feitosa JPA (2009) Polysaccharides from brazilian biodiversity: an opportunity to change knowledge into economic value. Quim Nova 32: 649-660. doi: 10.1590/S0100-40422009000300009
|
| [237] | Kumar A (2012) Cashew Gum a versatile hydrophyllic polymer: a review. Curr Drug Ther 7: 2-12. |
| [238] | Kumar R, Patil MB, Patil SR, et al. (2009) Evaluation of Anacardium occidentale gum as gelling agent in aceclofenac gel. Int J PharmTech Res 1: 695-704. |
| [239] |
Ribeiro AJ, de Souza FRL, Bezerra JMNA, et al. (2016) Gums' based delivery systems: review on cashew gum and its derivatives. Carbohydr Polym 147: 188-200. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.02.042
|
| [240] | Paula RCM, Heatley F, Budd PM (1998) Characterization of Anacardium occidentale exudate polysaccharide. Polym Int 45: 27-35. |
| [241] |
Porto BC, Augusto PED, Terekhov A, et al. (2015) Effect of dynamic high pressure on technological properties of cashew tree gum (Anacardium occidentale L.). Carbohydr Polym 129: 187-193. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.04.052
|
| [242] | Das B, Dutta S, Nayak AK, et al. (2014) Zinc alginate-carboxymethyl cashew gum microbeads for prolonged drug release: development and optimization. Int J Biol Macromol 70: 506-515. |
| [243] | Oliveira EF, Paula HCB, Paula RCM. (2014) Alginate/cashew gum nanoparticles for essential oil encapsulation. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 113: 146-151. |
| [244] |
Abreu FOMS, Oliveira EF, Paula HCB, et al. (2012) Chitosan/cashew gum nanogels for essential oil encapsulation. Carbohydr Polym 89: 1277-1282. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2012.04.048
|
| [245] |
Moreira BR, Batista KA, Castro EG, et al. (2015) A bioactive film based on cashew gum polysaccharide for wound dressing applications. Carbohydr Polym 122: 69-76. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.12.067
|
| [246] |
Silva FEF, Batista KA, Di-Medeiros MCB, et al. (2016) A stimuli-responsive and bioactive film based on blended polyvinyl alcohol and cashew gum polysaccharide. Mater Sci Eng C 58: 927-234. doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2015.09.064
|
| [247] | Barros SBA, Leite CMDS, de Brito ACF, et al. (2012) Multilayer films electrodes consisted of Cashew Gum and polyaniline assembled by the Layer-by-Layer technique: electrochemical characterization and its use for dopamine determination. Int J Anal Chem 2012: 1-10. |
| [248] | Pinto AMB, Santos TM, Caceres CA, et al. (2015) Starch-cashew tree gum nanocomposite films and their application for coating cashew nuts. LWT Food Sci Technol 62: 549-554. |
| [249] | Soares PAG, Bourbon AI, Vicente AA, et al.(2014) Development and characterization of hydrogels based on natural polysaccharides: Policaju and chitosan. Mater Sci Eng C 42: 219-226. |
| [250] |
Paula HCB, Sombra FM, Cavalcante RDF, et al. (2011) Preparation and characterization of chitosan/cashew gum beads loaded with Lippia sidoides essential oil. Mater Sci Eng C 31: 173-178. doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2010.08.013
|
| [251] |
Paula HCB, Rodrigues MLL, Ribeiro WLC, et al. (2012) Protective effect of Cashew Gum nanoparticles on natural larvicide from Moringa oleifera seeds. J Appl Polym Sci 124:1778-1784. doi: 10.1002/app.35230
|
| [252] |
Forato LA, de Britto D, de Rizzo JS, et al. (2015) Effect of cashew gum-carboxymethylcellulose edible coatings in extending the shelf-life of fresh and cut guavas. Food Packag Shelf Life 5: 68-74. doi: 10.1016/j.fpsl.2015.06.001
|
| [253] |
Gowthamarajan K, Kumar GKP, Gaikwad NB, et al. (2011) Preliminary study of Anacardium occidentale gum as binder in formulation of paracetamol tablets. Carbohydr Polym 83: 506-511. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2010.08.010
|
| [254] |
Carneiro-da-Cunha MG, Cerqueira MA, Souza BWS, et al. (2009) Physical properties of edible coatings and films made with a polysaccharide from Anacardium occidentale L. J Food Eng 95: 379-385. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2009.05.020
|
| [255] |
Dias SFL, Nogueira SS, Dourado FF, et al. (2016) Acetylated cashew gum-based nanoparticles for transdermal delivery of diclofenac diethyl amine. Carbohydr Polym 143: 254-261. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.02.004
|
| [256] |
Bittencourt CR, Farias EAO, Bezerra KC, et al. (2016) Immobilization of cationic antimicrobial peptides and natural cashew gum in nanosheet systems for the investigation of anti-leishmanial activity. Mater Sci Eng C 59: 549-555. doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2015.10.059
|
| [257] |
Pitombeira NAO, Veras Neto JG, Silva DA, et al. (2015) Self-assembled nanoparticles of acetylated cashew gum: Characterization and evaluation as potential drug carrier. Carbohydr Polym 117: 610-615. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.09.087
|
| [258] |
Porto BC, Cristianini M (2014) Evaluation of cashew tree gum (Anacardium occidentale L.) emulsifying properties. LWT Food Sci Technol 59: 1325-1331. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2014.03.033
|
| [259] | Babbar N, Dejonghe W, Gatti M, et al. (2015) Pectic oligosaccharides from agricultural by-products: production, characterization and health benefits. Crit Rev Biotechnol 36: 594-606. |
| [260] | Munarin F, Tanzi MC, Petrini P (2012) Advances in biomedical applications of pectin gels. Int J Biol Macromol 51: 681-689. |
| [261] |
Marras-Marquez T, Peña J, Veiga-Ochoa MD (2015) Robust and versatile pectin-based drug delivery systems. Int J Pharm 479: 265-276. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2014.12.045
|
| [262] |
Müller-Maatsch J, Bencivenni M, Caligiani A, et al. (2016) Pectin content and composition from different food waste streams. Food Chem 201: 37-45. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.01.012
|
| [263] | Hua X, Wang K, Yang R, et al. (2015) Edible coatings from sun flower head pectin to reduce lipid uptake in fried potato chips. LWT Food Sci Technol 62: 1220-1225. |
| [264] | Krivorotova T, Cirkovas A, Maciulyte S, et al. (2016) Nisin-loaded pectin nanoparticles for food preservation. Food Hydrocoll 54: 49-56. |
| [265] |
Guerreiro AC, Gago CML, Faleiro ML, et al. (2015) Raspberry fresh fruit quality as affected by pectin- and alginate-based edible coatings enriched with essential oils. Sci Hortic 194: 138-146. doi: 10.1016/j.scienta.2015.08.004
|
| [266] |
Gullón B, Gullón P, Sanz Y, et al. (2011) Prebiotic potential of a refined product containing pectic oligosaccharides. LWT Food Sci Technol 44: 1687-1696. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2011.03.006
|
| [267] |
Lama-Muñoz A, Rodríguez-Gutiérrez G, Rubio-Senent F, et al. (2012) Production, characterization and isolation of neutral and pectic oligosaccharides with low molecular weights from olive by-products thermally treated. Food Hydrocoll 28: 92-104. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2011.11.008
|
| [268] |
Chen H, Qiu S, Gan J, et al. (2016) New insights into the functionality of protein to the emulsifying properties of sugar beet pectin. Food Hydrocoll 57: 262-270. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2016.02.005
|
| [269] |
Schmidt US, Pietsch VL, Rentschler C, et al. (2016) Influence of the degree of esterification on the emulsifying performance of conjugates formed between whey protein isolate and citrus pectin. Food Hydrocoll 56: 1-8. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2015.11.015
|
| [270] |
Tamnak S, Mirhosseini H, Ping C, et al. (2016) Physicochemical properties, rheological behavior and morphology of pectin-pea protein isolate mixtures and conjugates in aqueous system and oil in water emulsion. Food Hydrocoll 56: 405-416. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2015.12.033
|
| [271] |
Meneguin AB, Cury BSF, Evangelista RC (2014) Films from resistant starch-pectin dispersions intended for colonic drug delivery. Carbohydr Polym 99: 140-149. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.07.077
|
| [272] |
Jung J, Arnold RD, Wicker L (2013) Pectin and charge modified pectin hydrogel beads as a colon-targeted drug delivery carrier. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 104: 116-121. doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2012.11.042
|
| [273] | Elisangela P, Sitta DLA, Fragal VH, et al. (2014) Covalent TiO2/pectin microspheres with Fe3O4 nanoparticles for magnetic field-modulated drug delivery. Int J Biol Macromol 67: 43-52. |
| [274] |
Zhang Y, Chen T, Yuan P, et al. (2015) Encapsulation of honokiol into self-assembled pectin nanoparticles for drug delivery to HepG2 cells. Carbohydr Polym 133: 31-38. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.06.102
|
| [275] |
Zhou M, Wang T, Hu Q, et al. (2016) Low density lipoprotein/pectin complex nanogels as potential oral delivery vehicles for curcumin. Food Hydrocoll 57: 20-29. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2016.01.010
|
| [276] |
Mashingaidze F, Choonara YE, Kumar P, et al. (2016) Poly (ethylene glycol) enclatherated pectin-mucin submicron matrices for intravaginal anti-HIV-1 drug delivery. Int J Pharm 503: 16-28. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2016.02.046
|
| [277] |
Alvarez-Lorenzo C, Blanco-Fernandez B, Puga AM, et al. (2013) Crosslinked ionic polysaccharides for stimuli-sensitive drug delivery. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 65: 1148-1171. doi: 10.1016/j.addr.2013.04.016
|
| [278] |
Auriemma G, Mencherini T, Russo P, et al. (2013) Prilling for the development of multi-particulate colon drug delivery systems: Pectin vs. pectin-alginate beads. Carbohydr Polym 92: 367-373. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2012.09.056
|
| [279] |
Fares MM, Assaf SM, Abul-Haija YM (2010). Pectin grafted poly(N-vinylpyrrolidone): Optimization and in vitro controllable theophylline drug release. J Appl Polym Sci 117: 1945-1954. doi: 10.1002/app.32172
|
| [280] |
van der Gronde T, Hartog A, van Hees C, et al. (2016) Systematic review of the mechanisms and evidence behind the hypocholesterolaemic effects of HPMC, pectin and chitosan in animal trials. Food Chem 199: 746-759. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.12.050
|
| [281] |
Zhu RG, Sun Y Di, Li TP, et al. (2015) Comparative effects of hawthorn (Crataegus pinnatifida Bunge) pectin and pectin hydrolyzates on the cholesterol homeostasis of hamsters fed high-cholesterol diets. Chem Biol Interact 238: 42-47. doi: 10.1016/j.cbi.2015.06.006
|
| [282] | Zhu R, Li T, Dong Y, et al. (2013) Pectin pentasaccharide from hawthorn (Crataegus pinnatifida Bunge. Var. major) ameliorates disorders of cholesterol metabolism in high-fat diet fed mice. Food Res Int 54: 261-268. |
| [283] | Austarheim I, Christensen BE, Hegna IK, et al. (2012) Chemical and biological characterization of pectin-like polysaccharides from the bark of the Malian medicinal tree Cola cordifolia. Carbohydr Polym 89: 259-268. |
| [284] |
Le Normand M, Mélida H, Holmbom B, et al. (2014) Hot-water extracts from the inner bark of Norway spruce with immunomodulating activities. Carbohydr Polym 101: 699-704. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.09.067
|
| [285] |
Zou YF, Zhang BZ, Inngjerdingen KT, et al. (2014) Polysaccharides with immunomodulating properties from the bark of Parkia biglobosa. Carbohydr Polym 101: 457-463. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.09.082
|
| [286] | Fan L, Sun Y, Xie W, et al. (2011) Oxidized pectin cross-linked carboxymethyl chitosan: a new class of hydrogels. J Biomater Sci Polym Ed 5063: 2119-2132. |
| [287] |
Tummalapalli M, Berthet M, Verrier B, et al. (2016) Drug loaded composite oxidized pectin and gelatin networks for accelerated wound healing. Int J Pharm 505: 234-245. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2016.04.007
|
| [288] |
Tummalapalli M, Berthet M, Verrier B, et al. (2016) Composite wound dressings of pectin and gelatin with aloe vera and curcumin as bioactive agents. Int J Biol Macromol 82: 104-113. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2015.10.087
|
| [289] |
Pérez S, Bertoft E (2010) The molecular structures of starch components and their contribution to the architecture of starch granules: A comprehensive review. Starch/Staerke 62: 389-420. doi: 10.1002/star.201000013
|
| [290] |
Le Corre D, Angellier-Coussy H (2014) Preparation and application of starch nanoparticles for nanocomposites: A review. React Funct Polym 85: 97-120. doi: 10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2014.09.020
|
| [291] |
Grote C, Heinze T (2005) Starch derivatives of high degree of functionalization 11: Studies on alternative acylation of starch with long-chain fatty acids homogeneously in N,N-dimethyl acetamide/LiCl. Cellulose 12: 435-444. doi: 10.1007/s10570-005-2178-z
|
| [292] |
Xie W, Wang Y (2011) Synthesis of high fatty acid starch esters with 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride as a reaction medium. Starch/Stärke 63: 190-197. doi: 10.1002/star.201000126
|
| [293] |
Tupa M, Maldonado L, Vazquez A, et al. (2013). Simple organocatalytic route for the synthesis of starch esters. Carbohydr Polym 98: 349-357. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.05.094
|
| [294] |
Rutkaite R, Bendoraitiene J, Klimaviciute R, et al. (2012) Cationic starch nanoparticles based on polyelectrolyte complexes. Int J Biol Macromol 50: 687-693. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2012.01.037
|
| [295] |
Baier G, Baumann D, Siebert JM, et al. (2012) Suppressing unspecific cell uptake for targeted delivery using hydroxyethyl starch nanocapsules. Biomacromolecules 13: 2704-2715. doi: 10.1021/bm300653v
|
| [296] |
Wei B, Zhang B, Sun B (2016) Aqueous re-dispersibility of starch nanocrystal powder improved by sodium hypochlorite oxidation. Food Hydrocoll 52: 29-37. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2015.06.006
|
| [297] |
Amini AM, Mohammad S, Razavi A (2016) A fast and efficient approach to prepare starch nanocrystals from normal corn starch. Food Hydrocoll 57: 132-138. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2016.01.022
|
| [298] |
Kim HY, Park SS, Lim ST (2015) Preparation, characterization and utilization of starch nanoparticles. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 126: 607-620. doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2014.11.011
|
| [299] | Lin N, Huang J, Chang PR, et al. (2011) Preparation, modification, and application of starch nanocrystals in nanomaterials: A review. J Nanomater 2011. |
| [300] |
Lin N, Huang J, Dufresne A (2012) Preparation, properties and applications of polysaccharide nanocrystals in advanced functional nanomaterials: a review. Nanoscale 4: 3274-3294. doi: 10.1039/c2nr30260h
|
| [301] |
Angellier H, Molina-Boisseau S, Dufresne A (2005) Mechanical properties of waxy maize starch nanocrystal reinforced natural rubber. Macromolecules 38: 9161-9170. doi: 10.1021/ma0512399
|
| [302] |
Jiang S, Liu C, Han Z, et al. (2016) Evaluation of rheological behavior of starch nanocrystals by acid hydrolysis and starch nanoparticles by self-assembly: A comparative study. Food Hydrocoll 52: 914-922. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2015.09.010
|
| [303] |
Rajisha KR, Maria HJ, Pothan LA, et al. (2014) Preparation and characterization of potato starch nanocrystal reinforced natural rubber nanocomposites. Int J Biol Macromol 67: 147-153. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2014.03.013
|
| [304] |
Sessini V, Arrieta MP, Kenny JM, et al. (2016) Processing of edible films based on nanoreinforced gelatinized starch. Polym Degrad Stabil In Press.305. Condés MC, Añón MC, Mauri AN, et al. (2015) Amaranth protein films reinforced with maize starch nanocrystals. Food Hydrocoll 47: 146-157. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2015.01.026
|
| 1. | Marianne Quéméneur, Malika Bel Hassen, Fabrice Armougom, Yosra Khammeri, Rim Lajnef, Amel Bellaaj-Zouari, Prokaryotic Diversity and Distribution Along Physical and Nutrient Gradients in the Tunisian Coastal Waters (South Mediterranean Sea), 2020, 11, 1664-302X, 10.3389/fmicb.2020.593540 | |
| 2. | Lamia Dammak Walha, Asma Hamza, Fatma Abdmouleh Keskes, Tamara Cibic, Aymen Mechi, Mabrouka Mahfoudi, Cherif Sammari, Heavy metals accumulation in environmental matrices and their influence on potentially harmful dinoflagellates development in the Gulf of Gabes (Tunisia), 2021, 02727714, 107317, 10.1016/j.ecss.2021.107317 | |
| 3. | Marianne Quéméneur, Sandrine Chifflet, Fourat Akrout, Amel Bellaaj-Zouari, Malika Belhassen, Impact of cigarette butts on microbial diversity and dissolved trace metals in coastal marine sediment, 2020, 240, 02727714, 106785, 10.1016/j.ecss.2020.106785 | |
| 4. | Sotirios Karavoltsos, Aikaterini Sakellari, Manos Dassenakis, Evangelos Bakeas, Michael Scoullos, Trace metals in the marine surface microlayer of coastal areas in the Aegean sea, Eastern Mediterranean, 2021, 259, 02727714, 107462, 10.1016/j.ecss.2021.107462 | |
| 5. | Sandrine Chifflet, Nicolas Briant, Javier Angel Tesán-Onrubia, Noureddine Zaaboub, Sirine Amri, Olivier Radakovitch, Daniela Bǎnaru, Marc Tedetti, Distribution and accumulation of metals and metalloids in planktonic food webs of the Mediterranean Sea (MERITE-HIPPOCAMPE campaign), 2023, 186, 0025326X, 114384, 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.114384 | |
| 6. | Nesma Feki, Lamia Khannous, Fatma Abdmouleh Keskes, Abdelwaheb Ben Slama, Daniel Levacher, Mobility of trace metals and microbiological pollution from dredged sediments to the Gulf of Gabes, Tunisia, 2022, 194, 0167-6369, 10.1007/s10661-022-10451-8 | |
| 7. | Rim Lajnef, Marianne Quéméneur, Moufida Abdennadher, Lamia Dammak Walha, Asma Hamza, Malika Belhassen, Amel Bellaaj Zouari, Prokaryotic Diversity and Dynamics during Dinoflagellate Bloom Decays in Coastal Tunisian Waters, 2023, 15, 1424-2818, 273, 10.3390/d15020273 | |
| 8. | Abra Penezić, Blaženka Gašparović, Vlado Cuculić, Slađana Strmečki, Tamara Djakovac, Marina Mlakar, Dissolved Trace Metals and Organic Matter Distribution in the Northern Adriatic, an Increasingly Oligotrophic Shallow Sea, 2022, 14, 2073-4441, 349, 10.3390/w14030349 | |
| 9. | Magda M. Abou El-Safa, Salah Elsayed, Osama Elsherbiny, Adel H. Elmetwalli, Mohamed Gad, Farahat S. Moghanm, Ebrahem M. Eid, Mostafa A. Taher, Mohamed H. E. El-Morsy, Hanan E. M. Osman, Ali H. Saleh, Environmental Assessment of Potentially Toxic Elements Using Pollution Indices and Data-Driven Modeling in Surface Sediment of the Littoral Shelf of the Mediterranean Sea Coast and Gamasa Estuary, Egypt, 2022, 10, 2077-1312, 816, 10.3390/jmse10060816 | |
| 10. | Rafet Çağrı Öztürk, Kenan Gedik, Ahmet Şahin, Yaşar Özvarol, Erhan Mutlu, Comparative trace element trends in Posidonia oceanica and its sediments along the Turkish-Mediterranean Sea coast, 2021, 28, 0944-1344, 61397, 10.1007/s11356-021-15089-6 | |
| 11. | Murilo de Carvalho Vicente, Cleuza Leatriz Trevisan, Angelo Cezar Borges de Carvalho, Braulio Cherene Vaz de Oliveira, Carlos Eduardo de Rezende, Wilson Valle Machado, Julio Cesar Wasserman, Geochemical fractionation of trace metals and ecological risk assessment of surface sediments in Sepetiba Bay, Brazil, 2024, 31, 1614-7499, 14254, 10.1007/s11356-024-32095-6 | |
| 12. | Sahar Karray, Justine Marchand, Alain Geffard, Tarek Rebai, Françoise Denis, Benoît Chénais, Amel Hamza-Chaffai, Metal Contamination and Biomarkers in Cerastoderma glaucum: A Multi-level Approach, 2023, 84, 0090-4341, 484, 10.1007/s00244-023-00999-y |
Figures(8) / Tables(1)
Priscilla B.S. Albuquerque, Luana C.B.B. Coelho, José A. Teixeira, Maria G. Carneiro-da-Cunha. Approaches in biotechnological applications of natural polymers[J]. AIMS Molecular Science, 2016, 3(3): 386-425. doi: 10.3934/molsci.2016.3.386
| As | Cd | Co | Cr | Cu | Fe | Mn | Mo | Ni | Pb | Sb | Sn | Ti | U | V | Zn | |
| Southern zone | ||||||||||||||||
| S1 | 4.98 | 1.28 | 3.12 | 47.52 | 6.56 | 8542.3 | 126.93 | 1.63 | 10.02 | 9.92 | 0.34 | 1.03 | 1598.2 | 3.76 | 31.09 | 43.51 |
| S2 | 1.66 | 1.70 | 0.42 | 9.09 | 1.71 | 2236.6 | 22.28 | 0.33 | 1.97 | 2.12 | 0.16 | 0.13 | 1220.1 | 2.31 | 5.47 | 15.60 |
| S3 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| S4 | 4.99 | 1.08 | 2.82 | 31.79 | 5.97 | 6010.2 | 93.29 | 1.78 | 8.85 | 10.15 | 0.50 | 0.92 | 1226.0 | 4.57 | 30.93 | 33.23 |
| S5 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| S6 | 6.37 | 1.63 | 4.17 | 56.25 | 9.80 | 7343.8 | 153.51 | 2.34 | 13.80 | 15.27 | 0.56 | 1.73 | 1632.6 | 5.18 | 43.56 | 56.13 |
| S7 | 6.79 | 2.27 | 3.39 | 48.33 | 13.87 | 7204.9 | 121.20 | 2.38 | 11.24 | 11.06 | 0.48 | 1.15 | 1146.0 | 5.27 | 33.09 | 73.06 |
| S8 | 3.81 | 1.01 | 1.88 | 27.02 | 5.38 | 4599.7 | 71.75 | 1.33 | 6.23 | 8.15 | 0.33 | 0.75 | 1100.4 | 2.89 | 20.49 | 28.75 |
| S9 | 1.12 | 0.32 | 0.99 | 11.70 | 2.11 | 2497.3 | 67.39 | 0.20 | 2.59 | 5.30 | 0.20 | 0.76 | 1209.0 | 1.07 | 11.16 | 9.34 |
| Min | 1.12 | 0.32 | 0.42 | 9.09 | 1.71 | 2236.6 | 22.28 | 0.20 | 1.97 | 2.12 | 0.16 | 0.13 | 1100.4 | 1.07 | 5.47 | 9.34 |
| Max | 6.79 | 2.27 | 4.17 | 56.25 | 13.87 | 8542.3 | 153.51 | 2.38 | 13.80 | 15.27 | 0.56 | 1.73 | 1632.6 | 5.27 | 43.56 | 73.06 |
| Northern zone | ||||||||||||||||
| S10 | 4.07 | 3.20 | 1.86 | 25.71 | 7.95 | 6475.0 | 69.58 | 2.76 | 7.03 | 6.20 | 0.50 | 0.69 | 1481.4 | 4.85 | 21.26 | 52.34 |
| S11 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| S12 | 4.76 | 3.51 | 2.89 | 37.96 | 9.74 | 7374.9 | 81.62 | 6.19 | 10.64 | 9.46 | 0.50 | 1.04 | 1515.0 | 4.07 | 30.44 | 87.47 |
| S13 | 3.81 | 3.26 | 2.45 | 32.10 | 7.86 | 6251.7 | 75.66 | 6.90 | 9.22 | 8.23 | 0.37 | 0.88 | 1318.7 | 4.45 | 26.68 | 49.82 |
| S14 | 5.46 | 3.42 | 2.59 | 30.08 | 7.76 | 6018.8 | 72.78 | 7.21 | 9.76 | 7.10 | 0.43 | 0.85 | 1295.8 | 4.35 | 26.21 | 50.39 |
| S15 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| S16 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| S17 | 4.88 | 1.43 | 2.25 | 26.03 | 5.87 | 5370.3 | 72.03 | 5.05 | 8.02 | 6.72 | 0.32 | 0.71 | 1293.8 | 3.62 | 22.49 | 30.78 |
| Min | 3.81 | 1.43 | 1.86 | 25.71 | 5.87 | 5370.3 | 69.58 | 2.76 | 7.03 | 6.20 | 0.32 | 0.71 | 1293.8 | 3.62 | 21.26 | 30.78 |
| Max | 5.46 | 3.51 | 2.89 | 37.96 | 9.74 | 7374.9 | 81.62 | 7.21 | 10.64 | 9.46 | 0.50 | 1.04 | 1515.0 | 4.85 | 30.44 | 87.47 |
| Note: N/A = not available | ||||||||||||||||
DownLoad:
CSV
| S1 | S2 | S4 | S6 | S7 | S8 | S9 | S10 | S12 | S13 | S14 | S17 | |
| Enrichment factor (EF1) | ||||||||||||
| As | 11, 0 | 12.6 | 15.6 | 16.3 | 17.7 | 15.6 | 8.4 | 11.8 | 12.1 | 11.5 | 17.1 | 17.1 |
| Cd | 49.4 | 180.8 | 59.2 | 73.1 | 103.7 | 72.5 | 42.3 | 162.6 | 156.8 | 171.7 | 187.0 | 87.5 |
| Co | 1.1 | 1.4 | 1.4 | 1.7 | 1.4 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 0.9 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.3 | 1.3 |
| Cr | 5.2 | 6.0 | 5.0 | 7.2 | 6.3 | 5.5 | 4.4 | 3.7 | 4.8 | 4.8 | 4.7 | 4.6 |
| Cu | 1.3 | 2.1 | 1.7 | 2.2 | 3.2 | 2.0 | 1.4 | 2.1 | 2.2 | 2.1 | 2.2 | 1.8 |
| Fe | ||||||||||||
| Mn | 0.9 | 1.8 | 0.9 | 1.2 | 1.0 | 0.9 | 1.6 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.8 |
| Mo | 4.3 | 2.8 | 6.7 | 7.2 | 7.5 | 6.6 | 1.8 | 9.7 | 19.1 | 25.1 | 27.2 | 21.4 |
| Ni | 2.0 | 1.8 | 2.5 | 3.2 | 2.7 | 2.3 | 1.8 | 1.9 | 2.5 | 2.5 | 2.8 | 2.5 |
| Pb | 2.1 | 5.3 | 3.0 | 3.7 | 2.7 | 3.2 | 3.8 | 1.7 | 2.3 | 2.3 | 2.1 | 2.2 |
| Sb | 5.2 | 8.0 | 10.7 | 9.8 | 8.5 | 9.2 | 10.4 | 9.9 | 8.8 | 7.6 | 9.2 | 7.6 |
| Sn | 0.9 | 1.4 | 1.3 | 1.9 | 1.3 | 1.3 | 2.6 | 0.9 | 1.1 | 1.1 | 1.1 | 1.1 |
| Ti | 2.0 | 5.9 | 2.2 | 2.4 | 1.7 | 2.6 | 5.2 | 2.5 | 2.2 | 2.3 | 2.3 | 2.6 |
| U | 5.5 | 6.1 | 9.5 | 8.8 | 9.1 | 7.8 | 5.3 | 9.3 | 6.9 | 8.9 | 9.0 | 8.4 |
| V | 2.1 | 2.5 | 3.0 | 3.5 | 2.7 | 2.6 | 2.6 | 1.9 | 2.4 | 2.5 | 2.5 | 2.4 |
| Zn | 2.7 | 4.2 | 3.0 | 4.1 | 5.4 | 3.3 | 2.0 | 4.3 | 6.4 | 4.3 | 4.5 | 3.1 |
| Geoaccumulation index (Igeo2) | ||||||||||||
| As | 0.9 | −0.8 | 0.9 | 1.3 | 1.4 | 0.5 | −1.2 | 0.6 | 0.9 | 0.5 | 1.1 | 0.9 |
| Cd | 3.1 | 3.0 | 2.8 | 3.4 | 3.9 | 2.8 | 1.1 | 4.4 | 4.5 | 4.4 | 4.5 | 3.2 |
| Co | −2.4 | −4.0 | −2.5 | −2.0 | −2.3 | −3.1 | −4.0 | −3.1 | −2.5 | −2.7 | −2.6 | −2.8 |
| Cr | −0.1 | −1.9 | −0.7 | 0.1 | −0.1 | −1.0 | −2.2 | −1.0 | −0.5 | −0.7 | −0.8 | −1.0 |
| Cu | −2.2 | −3.4 | −2.3 | −1.6 | −1.1 | −2.5 | −3.8 | −1.9 | −1.6 | −1.9 | −1.9 | −2.3 |
| Fe | −2.5 | −4.5 | −3.0 | −2.8 | −2.8 | −3.4 | −4.3 | −2.9 | −2.7 | −3.0 | −3.0 | −3.2 |
| Mn | −2.7 | −3.6 | −3.2 | −2.5 | −2.8 | −3.6 | −3.6 | −3.6 | −3.4 | −3.5 | −3.5 | −3.6 |
| Mo | −0.4 | −3.0 | −0.3 | 0.1 | 0.1 | −0.7 | −3.4 | 0.3 | 1.5 | 1.7 | 1.7 | 1.2 |
| Ni | −1.5 | −3.6 | −1.7 | −1.1 | −1.4 | −2.2 | −3.5 | −2.0 | −1.4 | −1.7 | −1.6 | −1.9 |
| Pb | −1.5 | −2.1 | −1.5 | −0.9 | −1.3 | −1.8 | −2.4 | −2.2 | −1.6 | −1.8 | −2.0 | −2.0 |
| Sb | −0.1 | −1.5 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.3 | −0.2 | −0.9 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.0 | 0.2 | −0.3 |
| Sn | −2.6 | −3.9 | −2.7 | −1.8 | −2.4 | −3.1 | −3.0 | −3.2 | −2.6 | −2.8 | −2.9 | −3.0 |
| Ti | −1.5 | −1.9 | −1.9 | −1.5 | −2.0 | −2.1 | −1.9 | −1.6 | −1.6 | −1.8 | −1.8 | −1.8 |
| U | −0.1 | −1.8 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.4 | −0.5 | −1.9 | 0.3 | 0.0 | 0.2 | 0.1 | −0.1 |
| V | −1.4 | −3.1 | −1.5 | −1.0 | −1.4 | −2.0 | −2.9 | −2.0 | −1.5 | −1.7 | −1.7 | −1.9 |
| Zn | −1.1 | −2.4 | −1.5 | −0.7 | −0.3 | −1.7 | −3.3 | −0.8 | −0.1 | −0.9 | −0.9 | −1.6 |
| Pollution Load Index (PLI3) | ||||||||||||
| 2.4 | 0.9 | 2.6 | 3.3 | 3.5 | 2.0 | 0.6 | 3.5 | 4.2 | 3.8 | 4.3 | 3.0 | |
| Notes: Contamination levels: 1 EF < 2, natural origin; 2 < EF < 5, moderate; 5 < EF < 20, significant; 20 < EF < 40, very high; EF > 40, severe enrichment. 2 Igeo < 0, unpolluted; 0 < Igeo < 1, unpolluted to moderate; 1 < Igeo < 2, moderate; 2 < Igeo < 3, moderate to strong; 3 < Igeo < 4, strong; 4 < Igeo < 5, strong to extreme; Igeo > 5, extremely polluted. 3 PLI < 1, natural origin; PLI > 1, contaminated site. | ||||||||||||
DownLoad:
CSV
| As | Cd | Co | Cr | Cu | Fe | Mn | Mo | Ni | Pb | Sb | Sn | Ti | U | V | Zn | |
| Sfax coastal zone | ||||||||||||||||
| S1 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| S2 | 2.14 | 0.176 | 0.114 | 1.66 | 0.82 | 86.8 | 6.49 | 13.9 | 2.31 | 0.206 | N/A | 0.664 | 1.585 | 4.25 | 2.97 | 32.0 |
| S3 | 1.93 | 0.077 | 0.052 | 0.95 | 0.56 | 10.1 | 1.66 | 14.6 | 1.90 | 0.121 | N/A | 0.571 | 0.400 | 4.12 | 2.27 | 35.4 |
| S41 | 1.95 | 0.061 | 0.062 | 1.16 | 0.74 | 11.8 | 1.89 | 14.7 | 10.04 | 0.137 | N/A | 0.463 | 0.616 | 4.07 | 2.41 | 34.0 |
| S5 | 2.43 | 0.201 | 0.174 | 2.17 | 0.89 | 142.7 | 9.97 | 15.1 | 5.35 | 0.294 | N/A | 0.382 | 2.172 | 4.66 | 4.00 | 44.9 |
| S6 | 2.22 | 0.105 | 0.084 | 1.06 | 0.92 | 27.1 | 3.61 | 16.3 | 1.49 | 0.137 | N/A | 0.294 | 0.882 | 4.29 | 2.75 | 19.6 |
| S7 | 2.98 | 0.249 | 0.196 | 2.20 | 1.11 | 91.7 | 9.68 | 17.3 | 60.37 | 0.378 | N/A | 0.312 | 1.682 | 4.86 | 4.38 | 38.5 |
| S8 | 2.09 | 0.063 | 0.080 | 1.16 | 0.74 | 20.2 | 2.81 | 13.9 | 30.85 | 0.243 | N/A | 0.229 | 0.771 | 3.69 | 2.39 | 38.0 |
| S91 | 2.10 | 0.033 | 0.070 | 0.45 | 0.84 | 8.8 | 2.46 | 15.6 | 0.89 | 0.135 | N/A | 0.221 | 0.596 | 3.96 | 2.46 | 12.5 |
| S10 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| S11 | 2.09 | 0.084 | 0.116 | 1.40 | 1.35 | 109.3 | 4.52 | 15.6 | 55.37 | 0.282 | N/A | 0.045 | 1.767 | 4.05 | 2.68 | 45.3 |
| S12 | 2.15 | 0.059 | 0.093 | 0.68 | 1.25 | 70.8 | 3.90 | 16.1 | 0.95 | 0.267 | N/A | 0.030 | 1.141 | 4.15 | 2.55 | 12.3 |
| S131 | 2.44 | 0.088 | 0.164 | 1.26 | 1.33 | 256.7 | 6.14 | 16.1 | 1.33 | 0.436 | N/A | < LoD | 4.291 | 4.22 | 3.39 | 17.5 |
| S14 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| S15 | 2.88 | 0.118 | 0.280 | 1.45 | 1.17 | 466.9 | 9.93 | 20.5 | 1.65 | 0.544 | N/A | 0.036 | 7.048 | 5.40 | 5.12 | 20.9 |
| S16 | 2.61 | 0.016 | 0.110 | 0.44 | 0.84 | 29.1 | 4.36 | 18.7 | 2.02 | 0.121 | N/A | < LoD | 0.798 | 4.64 | 3.58 | 13.8 |
| S171 | 2.50 | 0.022 | 0.091 | 0.33 | 0.67 | 29.0 | 4.46 | 17.2 | 0.81 | 0.112 | N/A | < LoD | 0.709 | 4.27 | 3.25 | 12.6 |
| MSFD-EAC 2 | ||||||||||||||||
| Min | 1 | 0.01 | N/A | 1 | 0.005 | N/A | N/A | N/A | 0.1 | 0.5 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 0.5 |
| Max | 10 | 0.1 | N/A | 10 | 0.05 | N/A | N/A | N/A | 1 | 5 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 5 |
| Notes: N/A = not available; LoD = Limit of Detection. 1 Arithmetic mean (n=3). 2 MSFD-EAC = Marine Strategy Framework Directive (2008/56/EC) – Environmental Assessment Criteria. |
||||||||||||||||
DownLoad:
CSV
| As | Cd | Co | Cr | Cu | Fe | Mn | Mo | Ni | Pb | Sb | Sn | Ti | U | V | Zn | |
| Southern zone | ||||||||||||||||
| S1 | 4.98 | 1.28 | 3.12 | 47.52 | 6.56 | 8542.3 | 126.93 | 1.63 | 10.02 | 9.92 | 0.34 | 1.03 | 1598.2 | 3.76 | 31.09 | 43.51 |
| S2 | 1.66 | 1.70 | 0.42 | 9.09 | 1.71 | 2236.6 | 22.28 | 0.33 | 1.97 | 2.12 | 0.16 | 0.13 | 1220.1 | 2.31 | 5.47 | 15.60 |
| S3 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| S4 | 4.99 | 1.08 | 2.82 | 31.79 | 5.97 | 6010.2 | 93.29 | 1.78 | 8.85 | 10.15 | 0.50 | 0.92 | 1226.0 | 4.57 | 30.93 | 33.23 |
| S5 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| S6 | 6.37 | 1.63 | 4.17 | 56.25 | 9.80 | 7343.8 | 153.51 | 2.34 | 13.80 | 15.27 | 0.56 | 1.73 | 1632.6 | 5.18 | 43.56 | 56.13 |
| S7 | 6.79 | 2.27 | 3.39 | 48.33 | 13.87 | 7204.9 | 121.20 | 2.38 | 11.24 | 11.06 | 0.48 | 1.15 | 1146.0 | 5.27 | 33.09 | 73.06 |
| S8 | 3.81 | 1.01 | 1.88 | 27.02 | 5.38 | 4599.7 | 71.75 | 1.33 | 6.23 | 8.15 | 0.33 | 0.75 | 1100.4 | 2.89 | 20.49 | 28.75 |
| S9 | 1.12 | 0.32 | 0.99 | 11.70 | 2.11 | 2497.3 | 67.39 | 0.20 | 2.59 | 5.30 | 0.20 | 0.76 | 1209.0 | 1.07 | 11.16 | 9.34 |
| Min | 1.12 | 0.32 | 0.42 | 9.09 | 1.71 | 2236.6 | 22.28 | 0.20 | 1.97 | 2.12 | 0.16 | 0.13 | 1100.4 | 1.07 | 5.47 | 9.34 |
| Max | 6.79 | 2.27 | 4.17 | 56.25 | 13.87 | 8542.3 | 153.51 | 2.38 | 13.80 | 15.27 | 0.56 | 1.73 | 1632.6 | 5.27 | 43.56 | 73.06 |
| Northern zone | ||||||||||||||||
| S10 | 4.07 | 3.20 | 1.86 | 25.71 | 7.95 | 6475.0 | 69.58 | 2.76 | 7.03 | 6.20 | 0.50 | 0.69 | 1481.4 | 4.85 | 21.26 | 52.34 |
| S11 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| S12 | 4.76 | 3.51 | 2.89 | 37.96 | 9.74 | 7374.9 | 81.62 | 6.19 | 10.64 | 9.46 | 0.50 | 1.04 | 1515.0 | 4.07 | 30.44 | 87.47 |
| S13 | 3.81 | 3.26 | 2.45 | 32.10 | 7.86 | 6251.7 | 75.66 | 6.90 | 9.22 | 8.23 | 0.37 | 0.88 | 1318.7 | 4.45 | 26.68 | 49.82 |
| S14 | 5.46 | 3.42 | 2.59 | 30.08 | 7.76 | 6018.8 | 72.78 | 7.21 | 9.76 | 7.10 | 0.43 | 0.85 | 1295.8 | 4.35 | 26.21 | 50.39 |
| S15 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| S16 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| S17 | 4.88 | 1.43 | 2.25 | 26.03 | 5.87 | 5370.3 | 72.03 | 5.05 | 8.02 | 6.72 | 0.32 | 0.71 | 1293.8 | 3.62 | 22.49 | 30.78 |
| Min | 3.81 | 1.43 | 1.86 | 25.71 | 5.87 | 5370.3 | 69.58 | 2.76 | 7.03 | 6.20 | 0.32 | 0.71 | 1293.8 | 3.62 | 21.26 | 30.78 |
| Max | 5.46 | 3.51 | 2.89 | 37.96 | 9.74 | 7374.9 | 81.62 | 7.21 | 10.64 | 9.46 | 0.50 | 1.04 | 1515.0 | 4.85 | 30.44 | 87.47 |
| Note: N/A = not available | ||||||||||||||||
| S1 | S2 | S4 | S6 | S7 | S8 | S9 | S10 | S12 | S13 | S14 | S17 | |
| Enrichment factor (EF1) | ||||||||||||
| As | 11, 0 | 12.6 | 15.6 | 16.3 | 17.7 | 15.6 | 8.4 | 11.8 | 12.1 | 11.5 | 17.1 | 17.1 |
| Cd | 49.4 | 180.8 | 59.2 | 73.1 | 103.7 | 72.5 | 42.3 | 162.6 | 156.8 | 171.7 | 187.0 | 87.5 |
| Co | 1.1 | 1.4 | 1.4 | 1.7 | 1.4 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 0.9 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.3 | 1.3 |
| Cr | 5.2 | 6.0 | 5.0 | 7.2 | 6.3 | 5.5 | 4.4 | 3.7 | 4.8 | 4.8 | 4.7 | 4.6 |
| Cu | 1.3 | 2.1 | 1.7 | 2.2 | 3.2 | 2.0 | 1.4 | 2.1 | 2.2 | 2.1 | 2.2 | 1.8 |
| Fe | ||||||||||||
| Mn | 0.9 | 1.8 | 0.9 | 1.2 | 1.0 | 0.9 | 1.6 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.8 |
| Mo | 4.3 | 2.8 | 6.7 | 7.2 | 7.5 | 6.6 | 1.8 | 9.7 | 19.1 | 25.1 | 27.2 | 21.4 |
| Ni | 2.0 | 1.8 | 2.5 | 3.2 | 2.7 | 2.3 | 1.8 | 1.9 | 2.5 | 2.5 | 2.8 | 2.5 |
| Pb | 2.1 | 5.3 | 3.0 | 3.7 | 2.7 | 3.2 | 3.8 | 1.7 | 2.3 | 2.3 | 2.1 | 2.2 |
| Sb | 5.2 | 8.0 | 10.7 | 9.8 | 8.5 | 9.2 | 10.4 | 9.9 | 8.8 | 7.6 | 9.2 | 7.6 |
| Sn | 0.9 | 1.4 | 1.3 | 1.9 | 1.3 | 1.3 | 2.6 | 0.9 | 1.1 | 1.1 | 1.1 | 1.1 |
| Ti | 2.0 | 5.9 | 2.2 | 2.4 | 1.7 | 2.6 | 5.2 | 2.5 | 2.2 | 2.3 | 2.3 | 2.6 |
| U | 5.5 | 6.1 | 9.5 | 8.8 | 9.1 | 7.8 | 5.3 | 9.3 | 6.9 | 8.9 | 9.0 | 8.4 |
| V | 2.1 | 2.5 | 3.0 | 3.5 | 2.7 | 2.6 | 2.6 | 1.9 | 2.4 | 2.5 | 2.5 | 2.4 |
| Zn | 2.7 | 4.2 | 3.0 | 4.1 | 5.4 | 3.3 | 2.0 | 4.3 | 6.4 | 4.3 | 4.5 | 3.1 |
| Geoaccumulation index (Igeo2) | ||||||||||||
| As | 0.9 | −0.8 | 0.9 | 1.3 | 1.4 | 0.5 | −1.2 | 0.6 | 0.9 | 0.5 | 1.1 | 0.9 |
| Cd | 3.1 | 3.0 | 2.8 | 3.4 | 3.9 | 2.8 | 1.1 | 4.4 | 4.5 | 4.4 | 4.5 | 3.2 |
| Co | −2.4 | −4.0 | −2.5 | −2.0 | −2.3 | −3.1 | −4.0 | −3.1 | −2.5 | −2.7 | −2.6 | −2.8 |
| Cr | −0.1 | −1.9 | −0.7 | 0.1 | −0.1 | −1.0 | −2.2 | −1.0 | −0.5 | −0.7 | −0.8 | −1.0 |
| Cu | −2.2 | −3.4 | −2.3 | −1.6 | −1.1 | −2.5 | −3.8 | −1.9 | −1.6 | −1.9 | −1.9 | −2.3 |
| Fe | −2.5 | −4.5 | −3.0 | −2.8 | −2.8 | −3.4 | −4.3 | −2.9 | −2.7 | −3.0 | −3.0 | −3.2 |
| Mn | −2.7 | −3.6 | −3.2 | −2.5 | −2.8 | −3.6 | −3.6 | −3.6 | −3.4 | −3.5 | −3.5 | −3.6 |
| Mo | −0.4 | −3.0 | −0.3 | 0.1 | 0.1 | −0.7 | −3.4 | 0.3 | 1.5 | 1.7 | 1.7 | 1.2 |
| Ni | −1.5 | −3.6 | −1.7 | −1.1 | −1.4 | −2.2 | −3.5 | −2.0 | −1.4 | −1.7 | −1.6 | −1.9 |
| Pb | −1.5 | −2.1 | −1.5 | −0.9 | −1.3 | −1.8 | −2.4 | −2.2 | −1.6 | −1.8 | −2.0 | −2.0 |
| Sb | −0.1 | −1.5 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.3 | −0.2 | −0.9 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.0 | 0.2 | −0.3 |
| Sn | −2.6 | −3.9 | −2.7 | −1.8 | −2.4 | −3.1 | −3.0 | −3.2 | −2.6 | −2.8 | −2.9 | −3.0 |
| Ti | −1.5 | −1.9 | −1.9 | −1.5 | −2.0 | −2.1 | −1.9 | −1.6 | −1.6 | −1.8 | −1.8 | −1.8 |
| U | −0.1 | −1.8 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.4 | −0.5 | −1.9 | 0.3 | 0.0 | 0.2 | 0.1 | −0.1 |
| V | −1.4 | −3.1 | −1.5 | −1.0 | −1.4 | −2.0 | −2.9 | −2.0 | −1.5 | −1.7 | −1.7 | −1.9 |
| Zn | −1.1 | −2.4 | −1.5 | −0.7 | −0.3 | −1.7 | −3.3 | −0.8 | −0.1 | −0.9 | −0.9 | −1.6 |
| Pollution Load Index (PLI3) | ||||||||||||
| 2.4 | 0.9 | 2.6 | 3.3 | 3.5 | 2.0 | 0.6 | 3.5 | 4.2 | 3.8 | 4.3 | 3.0 | |
| Notes: Contamination levels: 1 EF < 2, natural origin; 2 < EF < 5, moderate; 5 < EF < 20, significant; 20 < EF < 40, very high; EF > 40, severe enrichment. 2 Igeo < 0, unpolluted; 0 < Igeo < 1, unpolluted to moderate; 1 < Igeo < 2, moderate; 2 < Igeo < 3, moderate to strong; 3 < Igeo < 4, strong; 4 < Igeo < 5, strong to extreme; Igeo > 5, extremely polluted. 3 PLI < 1, natural origin; PLI > 1, contaminated site. | ||||||||||||
| As | Cd | Co | Cr | Cu | Fe | Mn | Mo | Ni | Pb | Sb | Sn | Ti | U | V | Zn | |
| Sfax coastal zone | ||||||||||||||||
| S1 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| S2 | 2.14 | 0.176 | 0.114 | 1.66 | 0.82 | 86.8 | 6.49 | 13.9 | 2.31 | 0.206 | N/A | 0.664 | 1.585 | 4.25 | 2.97 | 32.0 |
| S3 | 1.93 | 0.077 | 0.052 | 0.95 | 0.56 | 10.1 | 1.66 | 14.6 | 1.90 | 0.121 | N/A | 0.571 | 0.400 | 4.12 | 2.27 | 35.4 |
| S41 | 1.95 | 0.061 | 0.062 | 1.16 | 0.74 | 11.8 | 1.89 | 14.7 | 10.04 | 0.137 | N/A | 0.463 | 0.616 | 4.07 | 2.41 | 34.0 |
| S5 | 2.43 | 0.201 | 0.174 | 2.17 | 0.89 | 142.7 | 9.97 | 15.1 | 5.35 | 0.294 | N/A | 0.382 | 2.172 | 4.66 | 4.00 | 44.9 |
| S6 | 2.22 | 0.105 | 0.084 | 1.06 | 0.92 | 27.1 | 3.61 | 16.3 | 1.49 | 0.137 | N/A | 0.294 | 0.882 | 4.29 | 2.75 | 19.6 |
| S7 | 2.98 | 0.249 | 0.196 | 2.20 | 1.11 | 91.7 | 9.68 | 17.3 | 60.37 | 0.378 | N/A | 0.312 | 1.682 | 4.86 | 4.38 | 38.5 |
| S8 | 2.09 | 0.063 | 0.080 | 1.16 | 0.74 | 20.2 | 2.81 | 13.9 | 30.85 | 0.243 | N/A | 0.229 | 0.771 | 3.69 | 2.39 | 38.0 |
| S91 | 2.10 | 0.033 | 0.070 | 0.45 | 0.84 | 8.8 | 2.46 | 15.6 | 0.89 | 0.135 | N/A | 0.221 | 0.596 | 3.96 | 2.46 | 12.5 |
| S10 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| S11 | 2.09 | 0.084 | 0.116 | 1.40 | 1.35 | 109.3 | 4.52 | 15.6 | 55.37 | 0.282 | N/A | 0.045 | 1.767 | 4.05 | 2.68 | 45.3 |
| S12 | 2.15 | 0.059 | 0.093 | 0.68 | 1.25 | 70.8 | 3.90 | 16.1 | 0.95 | 0.267 | N/A | 0.030 | 1.141 | 4.15 | 2.55 | 12.3 |
| S131 | 2.44 | 0.088 | 0.164 | 1.26 | 1.33 | 256.7 | 6.14 | 16.1 | 1.33 | 0.436 | N/A | < LoD | 4.291 | 4.22 | 3.39 | 17.5 |
| S14 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| S15 | 2.88 | 0.118 | 0.280 | 1.45 | 1.17 | 466.9 | 9.93 | 20.5 | 1.65 | 0.544 | N/A | 0.036 | 7.048 | 5.40 | 5.12 | 20.9 |
| S16 | 2.61 | 0.016 | 0.110 | 0.44 | 0.84 | 29.1 | 4.36 | 18.7 | 2.02 | 0.121 | N/A | < LoD | 0.798 | 4.64 | 3.58 | 13.8 |
| S171 | 2.50 | 0.022 | 0.091 | 0.33 | 0.67 | 29.0 | 4.46 | 17.2 | 0.81 | 0.112 | N/A | < LoD | 0.709 | 4.27 | 3.25 | 12.6 |
| MSFD-EAC 2 | ||||||||||||||||
| Min | 1 | 0.01 | N/A | 1 | 0.005 | N/A | N/A | N/A | 0.1 | 0.5 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 0.5 |
| Max | 10 | 0.1 | N/A | 10 | 0.05 | N/A | N/A | N/A | 1 | 5 | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 5 |
| Notes: N/A = not available; LoD = Limit of Detection. 1 Arithmetic mean (n=3). 2 MSFD-EAC = Marine Strategy Framework Directive (2008/56/EC) – Environmental Assessment Criteria. |
||||||||||||||||
