Electric three-wheelers are increasingly adopted in developing countries as sustainable alternatives to internal combustion engine-based transport, yet their design and optimization require accurate modelling tools for improved adoption. This study develops a comprehensive MATLAB/Simulink model for evaluating the dynamic performance and energy efficiency of a three-wheel electric vehicle under standard driving cycle conditions. The model integrates a 3 kW brushless DC (BLDC) motor, a 48 V 100 Ah lithium-ion battery (NMC), and an H-bridge inverter with regenerative braking. The motor electrical parameters, battery internal resistance, C-rate, and inverter switching characteristics were incorporated to ensure reproducibility. A proportional-integral (PI) controller is employed to emulate driver torque demand. Vehicle performance is assessed using four standard drive cycles, such as the federal test procedure (FTP-75), the new European driving cycle (NEDC), the worldwide harmonized light vehicles test procedure (WLTP Class 3), and the urban dynamometer driving schedule (UDDS). Results show that WLTP Class 3 provides the most realistic representation of energy consumption for urban three-wheelers owing to its wider speed range, more dynamic acceleration patterns, and mixed urban–suburban characteristics. In comparison, FTP-75 and UDDS emphasise low-speed stop-and-go operation, while NEDC reflects smoother peri-urban driving. A mass-based analysis further demonstrates a strong positive correlation between vehicle weight and energy consumption, offering insight for chassis design, payload limits, and operational planning. The proposed framework provides a scalable, cost-effective tool that supports EV retrofit programs and guides manufacturers in optimising motor sizing, controller tuning, and battery capacity for three-wheel electric mobility in developing regions.
Citation: M M Mostafa Almadani, Omowunmi Mary Longe, Lanre Olatomiwa, Tobiloba Somefun. Analysis of the dynamic performance and energy efficiency of a three-wheel electric vehicle under standard drive cycles[J]. AIMS Energy, 2026, 14(1): 115-139. doi: 10.3934/energy.2026005
Electric three-wheelers are increasingly adopted in developing countries as sustainable alternatives to internal combustion engine-based transport, yet their design and optimization require accurate modelling tools for improved adoption. This study develops a comprehensive MATLAB/Simulink model for evaluating the dynamic performance and energy efficiency of a three-wheel electric vehicle under standard driving cycle conditions. The model integrates a 3 kW brushless DC (BLDC) motor, a 48 V 100 Ah lithium-ion battery (NMC), and an H-bridge inverter with regenerative braking. The motor electrical parameters, battery internal resistance, C-rate, and inverter switching characteristics were incorporated to ensure reproducibility. A proportional-integral (PI) controller is employed to emulate driver torque demand. Vehicle performance is assessed using four standard drive cycles, such as the federal test procedure (FTP-75), the new European driving cycle (NEDC), the worldwide harmonized light vehicles test procedure (WLTP Class 3), and the urban dynamometer driving schedule (UDDS). Results show that WLTP Class 3 provides the most realistic representation of energy consumption for urban three-wheelers owing to its wider speed range, more dynamic acceleration patterns, and mixed urban–suburban characteristics. In comparison, FTP-75 and UDDS emphasise low-speed stop-and-go operation, while NEDC reflects smoother peri-urban driving. A mass-based analysis further demonstrates a strong positive correlation between vehicle weight and energy consumption, offering insight for chassis design, payload limits, and operational planning. The proposed framework provides a scalable, cost-effective tool that supports EV retrofit programs and guides manufacturers in optimising motor sizing, controller tuning, and battery capacity for three-wheel electric mobility in developing regions.
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M M Mostafa Almadani, Omowunmi Mary Longe, Lanre Olatomiwa, Tobiloba Somefun. Analysis of the dynamic performance and energy efficiency of a three-wheel electric vehicle under standard drive cycles[J]. AIMS Energy, 2026, 14(1): 115-139. doi: 10.3934/energy.2026005
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