Figure 1.
Schematic illustration of the photocatalytic applications of Cu-based ternary and quaternary sulfide nanomaterials.
Due to their environmentally benign elemental components, suitable bandgap and high absorption coefficient in the visible-light range, Cu-based multinary sulfides exhibit excellent photocatalytic properties. Moreover, the adjustable atomic structure and unique electronic state of Cu-based multinary sulfide semiconductors can boost their ability to absorb visible light. In this review, we provide a summary of recent progress in photocatalytic applications of Cu-based multinary sulfide nanomaterials, including Cu-based ternary sulfides (CuInS2, CuIn5S8, Cu3SnS4, CuFeS2, etc.) and Cu-based quaternary sulfides (CuZnInS, Cu2ZnSnS4, CuZnGaS, CuInGaS, etc.). We start with a review of the bandgap alignments of Cu-based ternary sulfides and Cu-based quaternary sulfides, which are the key factors for the photocatalytic activity of semiconductor photocatalysts. Then, we discuss the advancements in photocatalytic applications of Cu-based multinary sulfide photocatalysts, including photocatalytic H2 production, CO2 reduction, organic synthesis and degradation of pollutants and photoelectrochemical H2 production. Finally, we end this review with a summary of the current challenges and opportunities of Cu-based multinary sulfides in future studies.
Citation: Liang Wu. Cu-based mutlinary sulfide nanomaterials for photocatalytic applications[J]. AIMS Materials Science, 2023, 10(5): 909-933. doi: 10.3934/matersci.2023049
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Due to their environmentally benign elemental components, suitable bandgap and high absorption coefficient in the visible-light range, Cu-based multinary sulfides exhibit excellent photocatalytic properties. Moreover, the adjustable atomic structure and unique electronic state of Cu-based multinary sulfide semiconductors can boost their ability to absorb visible light. In this review, we provide a summary of recent progress in photocatalytic applications of Cu-based multinary sulfide nanomaterials, including Cu-based ternary sulfides (CuInS2, CuIn5S8, Cu3SnS4, CuFeS2, etc.) and Cu-based quaternary sulfides (CuZnInS, Cu2ZnSnS4, CuZnGaS, CuInGaS, etc.). We start with a review of the bandgap alignments of Cu-based ternary sulfides and Cu-based quaternary sulfides, which are the key factors for the photocatalytic activity of semiconductor photocatalysts. Then, we discuss the advancements in photocatalytic applications of Cu-based multinary sulfide photocatalysts, including photocatalytic H2 production, CO2 reduction, organic synthesis and degradation of pollutants and photoelectrochemical H2 production. Finally, we end this review with a summary of the current challenges and opportunities of Cu-based multinary sulfides in future studies.
The demand for energy is increasing with the development of industrialization and information technology. Otherwise, the use of fossil fuels will emit a large amount of carbon dioxide and give rise to environmental pollution. Therefore, how to use new technology and materials to solve the increasingly tense energy crisis and severe environmental problems has become a hot spot in material and chemistry research fields. Solar energy is the most abundant and clean green energy.
Photocatalysis using solar energy is an appealing technology to address the energy crisis and environmental problems [1,2,3,4,5]. The photocatalytic reaction is generally divided into three steps. (Ⅰ) Photocatalysts absorb light to produce both excited holes and electrons. (Ⅱ) The holes and electrons transfer to the surface of the photocatalyst. (Ⅲ) The surface carriers participate in the redox reaction [6]. Specifically, semiconductor photocatalysts stir up the electrons in the valance band (VB) to the conduction band (CB) to produce hole-electron pairs [7,8,9]. Subsequently, the photogenerated carriers are separated and diffused from the bulk to the surface of the photocatalyst. Obviously, the light absorption efficiency, the charge separation and diffusion efficiency and the redox reaction efficiency are the three key parameters for determining the conversion efficiency of the photocatalytic reaction [10,11,12,13]. Therefore, the most important issue in photocatalysis is designing photocatalysts from the above three aspects to achieve high conversion efficiency.
Semiconductor nanomaterials have attracted extensive attentions due to the special properties stemming from the quantum effect [14,15,16]. As the size is less than the exciton Bohr radius, the electron density of the semiconductor nanomaterials will be discontinuous, and the carrier will have a spatial limiting effect and cause a change in the band structure [17,18,19]. On the other hand, the huge surface area of semiconductor nanomaterials will bring ignored surface effects. The tunable bandgaps and special surface effect of semiconductor nanomaterials will bring novel optical and electronic properties, rendering them as promising candidates for photocatalytic applications [20,21,22].
To date, a series of semiconductor nanomaterials have been developed as photocatalysts, such as metal oxides (TiO2, ZnO, WO3, etc.), metal chalcogenides (CdS, CdSe, etc.) and polymers [23,24,25,26,27,28,29]. Among the most widely investigated semiconductor photocatalysts, Cu-based multinary sulfide (CMS) nanomaterials have attracted wide interest in various photocatalytic applications due to their suitable and tunable bandgap, high absorption coefficient, environmental benign elemental components, unique electronic state and adjustable atomic structure [30,31,32,33,34]. CMSs are inorganic compounds consisting of at least two metal elements. The band structure of these CMSs can be conveniently adjusted through metal element alloying, then optimizing their photocatalytic performances [35,36,37,38]. The diversity of metal elements in CMSs will bring different crystal structures and allow precise control of the reactive atomic arrangement on the surface to construct specific active sites for diversified photocatalytic reactions [39,40,41,42]. At the same time, the differential charge distribution of diverse elements will result in microcosmic polarization and lead to a built-in electric field, which is beneficial for the effective separation of photogenerated holes and electrons [43,44]. Due to these specialties, CMS nanomaterials exhibit excellent performance in photocatalytic H2 production, CO2 reduction, organic synthesis, photoelectrochemical (PEC) H2 production, and so on [45,46,47,48,49].
In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview on recent research of CMS nanomaterials in photocatalytic applications. We focus on the most researched CMSs, namely Cu-based ternary and quaternary sulfide nanomaterials. We first introduce the bandgap alignments of Cu-based ternary sulfides (CuInS2, CuIn5S8, Cu3SnS4, etc.) and Cu-based quaternary sulfides (CuZnInS, Cu2ZnSnS4, CuInGaS, etc.), which are the key factors for the photocatalytic activity of semiconductor photocatalysts. Subsequently, we provide a summary of recent progress in the photocatalytic applications of Cu-based ternary sulfides and Cu-based quaternary sulfide nanomaterials, focusing on photocatalytic H2 production, CO2 reduction, organic synthesis, degradation of pollutants and PEC H2 production. Finally, we also summarize the current challenges and opportunities of Cu-based multinary sulfides in future studies.
To date, the developed CMS nanomaterials mainly focused on Cu-based ternary and quaternary sulfides (Figure 1). This section will introduce the bandgap alignments of Cu-based ternary (CuInS2, CuIn5S8, Cu3SnS4, CuFeS2, etc.) and quaternary sulfides (CuZnInS, Cu2ZnSnS4, CuZnGaS, CuInGaS, etc.) in detail.
Cu-based ternary sulfides are ZnS-derived compounds produced by replacing Zn atoms with Cu cations and trivalent/tetravalent cations (e.g., In, Ga, Sn, Ge, Fe, etc.) [50,51]. Cu-Ⅲ-S compounds (Ⅲ = In, Ga) preferentially crystallize in a diamond-like structure inherited from ZnS. For example, the stoichiometric formula CuInS2 (CIS) exhibits a stable chalcopyrite structure at room temperature and a metastable wurtzite structure at high temperature [52]. The tolerance of cation off-stoichiometry allows Cu-Ⅲ-S chalcopyrite compounds to introduce different cation ratios, producing nonstoichiometric ternary sulfides, such as CuIn3S5, CuIn5S8, and CuIn11S17 [53,54]. Moreover, the off-stoichiometry effect usually has great influences on the band structures, optical properties and crystal structures of Cu-Ⅲ-S compounds. The bandgaps of CuInS2 and CuIn5S8 are 1.5 and 2.06 eV, respectively [55,56]. In addition, the VB and CB positions of CuInS2 are also different from these of CuIn5S8 (Figure 2). The bandgap will change from 1.5 to 2.35 eV when the In cation is replaced by a Ga cation (Figure 2) [57].
The most reported Cu-Ⅳ-S compounds are stoichiometry Cu2SnS3 (CTS) and Cu2GeS3, which generally crystallize in zinc-blende, orthorhombic and wurtzite structures [58,59]. Similar to Cu-In-S compounds, tolerating cation off-stoichiometry usually leads to nonstoichiometric ternary sulfides, such as, Cu3SnS4, Cu4SnS4, and Cu2Sn3S7 [60,61]. The different cation ratios will lead to different bandgap alignments of Cu-Sn-S compounds. For example, the bandgaps of Cu2SnS3 and Cu3SnS4 are 0.91 and 1.67 eV, respectively, and possess different VB and CB positions (Figure 2) [62,63]. Cu2GeS3 with a monoclinic structure has a bandgap of 1.49 eV (Figure 2) [34]. In addition to the above Cu-Ⅳ-S compounds, CuFeS2 (CFS), obtained by replacing Zn atoms with Cu cations and Fe cations, is another well-studied ternary sulfide [64,65,66]. The special band structures and high visible-light absorption efficiency favor the utilization of Cu-based ternary sulfides in photocatalytic H2 production, CO2 reduction, organic synthesis and pollutant removal.
Cu-based quaternary sulfides have attracted extensive research interests in photocatalytic applications as fascinating and promising nanomaterials. Many types of Cu-based quaternary sulfides have been designed and synthesized via regulation of metal types and ratios, such as Cu-Ⅱ-Ⅵ-S compounds obtained via successive replacement of the In atoms in CuInS2 with Ⅱ and Ⅵ atoms obeying the octet rule [44], and Cu-Ⅱ-Ⅴ-S compounds obtained via partially replacing of the In atoms in CuInS2 with Ⅱ atoms [35,67]. As far back as 1950, scientists designed quaternary chalcogenide via cation substitution [68]. A series of Cu-based quaternary sulfides have been synthesized for photocatalytic applications in recent decades, such as Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS), CuZnInS (CZIS), Cu2CdSnS4 (CCTS), Cu2ZnGeS4 (CZGS), and CuGaInS (CGIS) [69,70,71,72,73]. As the most researched quaternary chalcogenide, CZTS is an n-type semiconductor with a bandgap of 1.5 eV [31], which can absorb all visible light for photocatalytic applications. In addition, the other Cu-based quaternary sulfides also have suitable bandgaps for visible-light absorption, namely CuZn4InS6 with a bandgap of 2.23 eV, CZGS with a bandgap of 2.11 eV and CGIS with a bandgap of 1.82 eV (Figure 2) [39,40,74,75]. Due to their special band structures, high visible-light absorption efficiency and tunable surface atomic arrangements, Cu-based quaternary sulfides are widely used for photocatalytic H2 production, organic synthesis, degradation of pollutants and PEC H2 evolution.
Hydrogen energy is a kind of secondary energy with abundant sources and wide applications. However, almost no elementary hydrogen exists on Earth. Hydrogen can be produced by the decomposition of hydrogen-containing materials. Water is the most abundant hydrogen-containing compound on Earth, so water splitting is an efficient and sustainable method for hydrogen production. Photocatalytic hydrogen production is a green and sustainable hydrogen production program. In photocatalytic overall water splitting, water molecules are split into hydrogen and oxygen on the surface of photocatalysts under irradiation [8,79,80].
To date, various kinds of CMSs have been used for solar-to-hydrogen production. Kudo and coauthors first used CZIS powder for photocatalytic H2 evolution from aqueous solutions containing K2SO3 and K2S under visible-light irradiation [67]. With the development of nanotechnology, CMS nanomaterials have been designed and synthesized for solar-driven hydrogen production [81,82,83,84]. For example, Wu and coauthors reported the synthesis of CIS quantum dots (QDs) via an aqueous synthetic approach, which exhibited excellent photocatalytic hydrogen evolution performances [84]. Ning and coauthors successfully prepared water soluble CZIS QDs for photocatalytic hydrogen production (Figure 3). The CIZS QDs passivated by glutathione ligands are highly stable in aqueous conditions (Figure 3a) and show significant energy conversion efficiency in the visible and near-infrared regions with an external quantum efficiency (EQE) of ~1.5% at 650 nm (Figure 3b), which is the highest EQE reported in the near-infrared region [76]. In addition, many strategies have been used to improve the photocatalytic hydrogen production performances of CMS QDs. For instant, Pt and Au co-catalysts have been loaded on the surface of CZTS nanocrystals to significantly improve the photocatalytic H2 evolution performances [31,82,85,86]. Heterojunctions and homojunctions are designed in CZTS to promote the separation of photogenerated charges and then optimize their photocatalytic performances [43,87,88,89].
One-dimensional (1D) nanostructures exhibit novel physicochemical properties brought about by changes in dimension, size and composition [90,91,92]. In particular, the continuity of charge transport brings out the unique advantages of 1D materials in photocatalytic and photoelectronic applications. Various types of 1D semiconductor nanomaterials have been developed for photocatalytic hydrogen production [26,93,94]. Han and coauthors have successfully synthesized wurtzite CZIS nanorods using a one-pot non-injection method for solar-to-hydrogen production (Figure 3c) [32,77]. Subsequently, Pt and Pd4S nanoparticles were decorated on the tips of CZIS nanorods to improve their photocatalytic performances. The Pt and Pd4S cocatalysts can accelerate charge separation and act as active sites for hydrogen production, resulting in remarkably improved photocatalytic performance (Figure 3d). Low-cost and noble-metal-free 1D CZTS nanofibers also exhibit excellent photocatalytic hydrogen production performance under visible-light irradiation [95].
Due to the solo ability of confinement of electrons in their layer, two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials possess special optical and electronic properties. In addition, 2D semiconductor nanomaterials can reduce the recombination rate and shorten the migration distance of photogenerated carriers. The layered structure facilitates the light absorption process even at low flux density, and the photogenerated carriers are only required to transfer a very small distance. Moreover, the large surface area of 2D nanomaterials favors surface reactions. Thus, 2D semiconductor nanomaterials are widely used for solar-to-hydrogen production [96,97,98,99]. Wang and coauthor first reported the synthesis of graphene-like CZTS nanosheets using a facile template-free approach [100]. The synthesized CZTS nanosheets with a thickness of ca. 2–3 nm exhibited high activity and stability for solar-to-hydrogen production without loading cocatalysts. Note that the 2D structure can expose the highest active facet. We first used first-principle-density functional theory calculations to explore the reaction Gibbs energy (ΔGH) of the (0001), (1010) and (1011) facets of wurtzite CZIS, finding that the (0001) facet has the smallest binding strength to atomic hydrogen. We then designed a simple colloidal method to synthesize single crystalline wurtzite CZIS nanobelts (NBs) exposing the (0001) facet assisted with oleylamine and 1-dodecanethiol (Figure 3e). The synthesized CZIS nanobelt photocatalysts show excellent photocatalytic performances under visible-light irradiation without cocatalyst (Figure 3f) [40]. Furthermore, we doped phosphorus into 2D single crystalline CZIS sulfide nanobelts to reduce the recombination rate and increase the electric conductivity of photogenerated carriers, enabling significantly improved photocatalytic H2 evolution performance [39].
In addition, three-dimensional (3D) CMSs have also been developed as photocatalysts for solar-to-hydrogen production. Xie and coauthors have constructed monodisperse CIS hierarchical microarchitectures for photocatalytic hydrogen production [101]. The obtained monodisperse CIS hierarchical photocatalyst showed an average hydrogen production rate of 59.4 µmol h−1 g−1 under visible light irradiation. Qian and coauthors successfully synthesized 3D-hierarchical Cu3SnS4 flower-like microspheres via a solvothermal process (Figure 3g) [78]. The bandgap of the obtained Cu3SnS4 microspheres is 1.38 eV, which is suitable for UV and near-IR light absorption. The 3D Cu3SnS4 photocatalysts without cocatalyst show good photocatalytic activity with a H2 evolution rate of 1.1 mmol h−1 g−1 (Figure 3h). 3D Cu-based quaternary sulfides also exhibit excellent photocatalytic hydrogen production performances, such as CZIS hollow microspheres and hollow sub-microspheres [102,103].
Photoelectrochemical water splitting provides a promising strategy to convert solar energy into hydrogen [106,107,108]. Previously, many common photovoltaic materials such as CdTe, TiO2 and Si were successfully used to fabricate photoelectrodes for PEC solar water splitting and obtained significant results [109,110,111]. However, the toxicity of Cd in CdTe, the narrow light absorption range and the high energy fabrication process of Si limited their large-scale applications in PEC water splitting. Thus, scientists are searching for high-efficiency, low-cost and wide light absorption materials for PEC applications. Copper-based multinary chalcogenides such as CIS, Cu(InGa)Se2 (CIGSe), and CZTS have been used as potential photocathode materials due to their excellent photovoltaic performances and suitable conduction band positions for water reduction [48,112,113,114,115,116,117]. For example, the CIGSe/CdS/ZnO photocathode exhibited excellent PEC performance with a current upping to 32.5 mA cm−2 at 0 VRHE [118]. Then, CMS nanomaterials were also used to fabricate photoelectrodes for PEC applications with the development of nanotechnology [119,120,121].
Guo and coauthors fabricated CZTS photoelectrode using colloidal CZTS nanocrystals via electrophoretic deposition. The obtained CZTS photoelectrode exhibited composition-dependent PEC hydrogen production performances [122]. The (Cu2Sn)0.45Zn1.65S3 photocathode has the highest photocurrent with an incident photon to current conversion efficiency (IPCE) of 3.9% at 600 nm, which is higher than previously reported results of CZTS photocathodes [123]. Similarly, the CZIS photoelectrode fabricated by 2D CZIS nanoplates also showed a cathodic photocurrent [124]. Moon and coauthors synthesized chalcopyrite CIS nanorod arrays as photoelectrodes for PEC hydrogen production via anodic aluminum oxide template-assisted growth. The CIS nanorod arrays showed an obvious cathodic photocurrent response without co-catalyst loading [125]. Zhang and coauthors reported the synthesis of chalcopyrite CIS nanosheet-constructed nanowire arrays (NCNAs) (Figure 4a). The PEC properties of these NCNAs were investigated using a three-electrode system with a reference electrode of Ag/AgCl and counter electrode of a Pt mesh in a 1.0 M KCl aqueous solution. The CIS NCNA photocathode exhibited not only enhanced PEC performance, but also improved PEC stability (Figure 4b) [104]. Many strategies have been developed to improve the PEC performances of CMS photoelectrodes. For example, Sivula and coauthors used CdS, ZnSe and CdSe buffer layers to modify the surface of CZTS nanocrystal photocathodes to enhance the PEC performance [126]. Pradhan and coauthors integrated Au on CIS nanocrystals to improve the PEC performance of CIS nanoplates [127]. The exciton−plasmon coupling in the 0D−2D dot−disk Au-CIS heterostructures leads to a higher photocurrent with efficient production of H2.
Among the widely used PEC materials, some wide-bandgap metal oxides (such as ZnO and TiO2) are promising stable, efficient and inexpensive anode materials for efficient PEC hydrogen production [128,129]. However, the large bandgaps of metal oxides limit the absorption of visible light, thus reducing the solar-to-hydrogen conversion efficiency. Sensitization using QDs, especially CMS CDs, is one of the most promising strategies to expand the light absorption range of metal oxides, mainly due to the suitable bandgap of CMS QDs [130,131,132,133]. Teng and coauthors used colloidal CIS CDs as sensitizers for TiO2 photoelectrodes [134]. The CIS-sensitized TiO2 photoelectrodes exhibited a maximum conversion efficiency of 1.9% at +0.23 V bias. Wang and coauthors used CZIS CDs to sensitize TiO2 photoelectrodes. The obtained CZIS/TiO2 photoelectrodes showed composition-dependent performances with a maximum photocurrent density of 3.7 mA cm−2 [135]. In addition, 2D CZIS nanosheet-sensitized TiO2 nanorods can also boost their solar water splitting performance [136]. Xu and coauthors studied the PEC performance of CZTS-sensitized ZnO nanorod photoanodes in detail. CZTS/ZnO photoanodes are fabricated by spin-coating CZTS nanocrystals on ZnO arrays (Figure 4c). The ZnO/CZTSSe photoelectrode showed excellent PEC performances with a photocurrent density of 6.38 mA cm−2 at 1.23 VRHE and an optimal applied bias photon-to-current efficiency (ABPE) of 2.8% at a bias of 0.60 V (Figure 4d) [105].
Excessive CO2 emissions have led to greenhouse effects and several serious environmental problems. Converting CO2 into hydrocarbon fuels is a promising approach to lower the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere and can also reduce the dependence on fossil fuels. Inspired by the photosynthesis of plants, photocatalytic CO2 reduction to hydrocarbon fuels using solar energy is an attractive method for CO2 conversion and can mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. A series of photocatalysts have been explored for photocatalytic CO2 reduction, such as metal oxides, metal nitrides, and metal sulfides [137,138,139,140]. Among them, metal sulfides are excellent catalysts for photocatalytic or PEC CO2 reduction because the S 3p orbital occupies the less positive VB, which promote metal sulfides with a wider photoresponse range and higher carrier concentration, and sulfur has light-effective mass carriers [141,142]. CMS semiconductors with a narrow bandgap and excellent light absorption abilities have been widely studied for photocatalytic and PEC CO2 reduction [143,144,145,146].
Furthermore, the large specific surface area of CMS nanomaterials could bring a huge number of reactive sites, thus leading to excellent photocatalytic performance. For example, single-phase Cu3SnS4 with a bandgap of 1.76 eV is a robust photocatalyst that can selectively reduce CO2 into CH4 via a photocatalytic reaction [147]. The Cu3SnS4 photocatalyst exhibited a remarkable CH4 production rate of 14 μmol g−1 h−1 with 80% selectivity without a cocatalyst or scavenger. To improve the activity and selectivity of the Cu3SnS4 photocatalyst, Yu and coauthors constructed S vacancies in Cu3SnS4 nanocrystals to introduce Cu(Ⅰ) and Sn(Ⅱ), which can effectively suppress the recombination of electrons and holes and improve their selectivity and reactivity [62]. The as-prepared S-vacancy Cu3SnS4 nanocrystals exhibited a CH4 evolution rate of 22.65 μmol g−1 h−1 with a selectivity of 83.1%, without any cocatalyst or scavenger. Similarly, Xie and coauthors engineered S vacancies in Cu5InS8 single-unit-cells to improve the selectivity of photocatalytic CO2 reduction (Figure 5a–d) [55]. The existence of S vacancies not only reduce the overall activation energy barrier (Figure 5a), but also transform the endoergic protonation process to an exoergic reaction step (Figure 5c–d), which can change the reaction pathway to improve the selectivity of CH4. The obtained S-vacancy CuIn5S8 (Vs-CuIn5S8) single-unit-cell layers exhibited a CH4 evolution rate of 8.7 μmol g−1 h−1 with a near 100% selectivity in the photocatalytic CO2 reduction reaction (Figure 5b). Wang and coauthors constructed CuxInS5-CuySe S-scheme heterostructures to enhance the reactivity of photocatalytic CO2 reduction [148]. The obtained S-scheme heterostructures showed a near 100% selectivity for photocatalytic CO2 reduction to methanol, with a rate of 5.250 μmol g−1 h−1. In addition, Cu-based ternary and quaternary sulfide QDs are usually used as photosensitizers for photocatalytic CO2 reduction assisted by molecular catalysts [46,149,150]. For example, Weiss and coauthors used CIS colloidal QDs as photosensitizers for the photocatalytic reduction of CO2 to CO in pure water [46]. The photocatalysts exhibited excellent photoreduction performances with a turnover number of 72484−84101, a quantum yield of 0.96%–3.39%, and a CO selectivity of 99%.
Photocatalytic organic synthesis is not only an attractive strategy enabling direct solar energy to chemical energy conversion, but it also provides a promising alternative to traditional high-energy chemical synthesis. Photocatalysts can absorb solar light to produce electrons and holes, thereby promoting chemical reactions on the surface of photocatalysts. A series of classic reactions, such as alcohol oxidation, hydrogenation, aerobic coupling and epoxidation have been achieved via photocatalytic reactions. Note that, the photocatalyst is essential for the photocatalytic reaction. CMSs are widely used for photocatalytic organic synthesis, such as PEC methylcyclohexane synthesis and PEC ammonia synthesis [47,152].
The development of nanotechnology promotes the preferable use of CMS nanomaterials for photocatalytic organic synthesis. For example, chalcopyrite CFS nanocrystals with a tetragonal structure show obvious localized surface plasmon resonance at 2.4 eV, which relaxes through nonradiative damping, thus generating hot holes or electrons and heat. In addition, due to their strong coordination preference of Fe–S units for organics and hydrogen atoms, CFS nanocrystals could be used as an attractive plasmonic photocatalyst for photocatalytic synthesis [151,153]. Zbořil and coauthors used CFS nanocrystals as plasmonic photocatalysts for the selective hydrogenation of nitroaromatics (Figure 6a–e) [151]. Under solar light irradiation, the CFS nanocrystals work through the synthetic action of photothermal effects and hot holes. The CFS nanocrystal catalysts exhibited a higher production rate than other top-rated photo and thermal catalysts. Importantly, these plasmonic catalysts can be reused many times. Sun and coauthors used S-doped biochar-supported CIS QD-sensitized Bi2MoO6 hierarchical flowers as photocatalysts for efficient photocatalytic biorefineries [154]. The obtained photocatalyst exhibited a xylonic acid yield of 86.59% under visible light irradiation. Chen and coauthors constructed a CIS modified polymeric carbon nitride S-scheme photocatalyst for H2O2 synthesis [155]. The optimized S-scheme photocatalyst showed a H2O2 yield of 1247.6 μmol L−1 h−1 with an apparent quantum yield (AQY) of 16.0% at 420 nm.
A pollutant-free environment is a fundamental need of human beings. A variety of pollutants effect living organisms. To solve these problems, the exploration of catalysts for the photocatalytic degradation of these pollutants using solar energy is necessary [156,157]. Semiconductor photocatalysis is an economical and effective strategy to remove pollutants. Metal oxide semiconductors are the most commonly used photocatalysts for photocatalytic pollutant removal [158,159]. Meanwhile, the greatest disadvantage of these photocatalysts is their wide bandgap which limits the absorption of visible light. CMS is a promising candidate for metal oxide due to its wide light absorption range [49,160,161,162].
Under visible light irradiation, CMS photocatalysts absorb light to produce hole-electron pairs. Then, the electrons and holes migrate to the surface of the photocatalysts. Finally, the hole-electron pairs format different reactive oxygen species via a series of redox reactions, which are the dominant active species in the photooxidation of pollutants (Figure 7a). CTS flower-like architectures show obvious photocatalytic activity for photodegradation of methylene blue [163]. CZTS nanoparticles with a size of 2–5 nm was used for the photocatalytic degradation of industrial waste and organic pollutants in water [49]. The efficiency of CZTS nanoparticles was 75% for industrial waste and 98.4% for organic pollutants under sunlight (Figure 7b, c). Deka and coauthors also used surfactant-free hydrophilic CZTS nanoparticles as photocatalysts for the photoreduction of Cr(Ⅳ) into nontoxic Cr(Ⅲ) [164]. The high catalytic performance of the as-prepared CZTS NPs under visible light irradiation is attributed to the size, surface charge and electronic effect of the CZTS nanoparticles.
Due to their suitable bandgap, adjustable atomic structure, unique electronic state, and outstanding optoelectronic properties, CMS nanomaterials are widely used in the field of photocatalysis and show exciting photocatalytic performances. This review provides a summary of recent progress on the photocatalytic applications of Cu-based ternary and quaternary sulfide nanomaterials, such as photocatalytic H2 production, CO2 reduction, organic synthesis, pollutant removal and PEC H2 production.
Although remarkable progress has been made in the photocatalytic applications of Cu-based ternary and quaternary sulfide nanomaterials, there is a series of challenges that merit further investigation. First, the photocatalytic performances of current CMS nanomaterials are deficient for feasible scale applications. It is necessary to develop other CMS nanomaterials with novel structural features and electronic properties for photocatalytic applications. Additionally, engineering strategies should be developed to improve the photocatalytic performances of CMS nanomaterials, such as surface and defect engineering, element doping, cocatalyst loading, crystal structure engineering, and homojunction and heterojunction construction. Second, it is necessary to study the detailed photocatalytic mechanisms of how the CMS photocatalysts work using in situ methods, such as X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS), Raman spectroscopy, and HRTEM. Deep exploration of the intrinsic mechanism of CMS photocatalysts will be beneficial for rational photocatalyst design to obtain higher photocatalytic activity. Third, the theoretical study of the CMS photocatalysis process is insufficient. Due to the surface atomic reconstruction and dynamic exciton behavior during the photocatalytic reaction, it is significant to use time-dependent density functional theory calculations to explore the excited-state chemistry. Furthermore, in situ characterizations assisted by calculations will provide deep insights into the relationship between atomic arrangements and photocatalytic properties. Fourth, the main products are CH4 and CO for the photocatalytic CO2 reduction of CMS nanomaterials. However, it is difficult to obtain high value-added C2+ products. Finally, hole-generated photocorrosion is a general problem for the metal sulfide photocatalysts. Further efforts should be made to develop other means of addressing the stability problems coming from photocorrosion.
The author declares that no Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools were used in the creation of this article.
This work was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (Grants 2021YFA0715700), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grants 22101271).
The author declares no conflict of interest.
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Figures(7)
Liang Wu. Cu-based mutlinary sulfide nanomaterials for photocatalytic applications[J]. AIMS Materials Science, 2023, 10(5): 909-933. doi: 10.3934/matersci.2023049
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