Loading [MathJax]/jax/output/SVG/jax.js
Search Advanced

AIMS Public Health

2022, Volume 9, Issue 2: 216-236. doi: 10.3934/publichealth.2022016
Previous Article Next Article
Research article Topical Sections

Preserving rural school health during the COVID-19 pandemic: Indigenous citizen scientist perspectives from a qualitative study

  • 1.
    Johnson Shoyama Graduate School of Public Policy, University of Regina, 2155 College Ave, Regina, SK S4P 4V5, Canada
  • 2.
    Johnson Shoyama Graduate School of Public Policy, University of Saskatchewan, 101 Diefenbaker Pl, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B8, Canada
  • 3.
    Faculty of Health Sciences, Western University, 1151 Richmond St, London, ON N6A 5B9, UK
  • Received: 29 October 2021 Revised: 24 December 2021 Accepted: 27 December 2021 Published: 06 January 2022

  • This qualitative study is part of Smart Indigenous Youth, a digital health community trial involving rural schools in Saskatchewan, Canada. Secondary school administrators and educators were engaged as citizen scientists in rural Indigenous communities to understand rapid decision-making processes for preserving school health during the COVID-19 pandemic, and to inform evidence-based safe school policies and practices. After COVID-19 restrictions were implemented, key informant interviews and focus groups were conducted with school administrators and educators, respectively, to understand the impact of school responses and decision-making processes. Two independent reviewers conducted thematic analyses and compared themes to reach consensus on a final shortlist. Four main themes emerged from the administrator interviews, and six main themes were identified from the educator focus group discussions which revealed a pressing need for mental health supports for students and educators. The study findings highlight the challenges faced by schools in rural and remote areas during the COVID-19 pandemic, including school closures, students' reactions to closures, measures taken by schools to preserve health during the pandemic, and different approaches to implement for future closures. Citizen scientists developed a set of recommendations, including the need for structured communication, reflection meetings, adequate funding, and external monitoring and evaluation to guide evidence-based safe school policies and practices during the pandemic.

    Citation: Prasanna Kannan, Jasmin Bhawra, Pinal Patel, Tarun Reddy Katapally. Preserving rural school health during the COVID-19 pandemic: Indigenous citizen scientist perspectives from a qualitative study[J]. AIMS Public Health, 2022, 9(2): 216-236. doi: 10.3934/publichealth.2022016

    Related Papers:

    [1] Namfon Samsalee, Rungsinee Sothornvit . Different novel extraction techniques on chemical and functional properties of sugar extracts from spent coffee grounds. AIMS Agriculture and Food, 2022, 7(4): 897-915. doi: 10.3934/agrfood.2022055
    [2] Naima Belguedj, Ghayth Rigane, Ridha Ben Salem, Khodir Madani . Conventional and eco-friendly aqueous extraction methods of date palm fruit compounds: Optimization, comparison, characterization of the date pulp extract and value-added potential. AIMS Agriculture and Food, 2025, 10(1): 218-246. doi: 10.3934/agrfood.2025012
    [3] Albert Nugraha, Asadin Briliantama, M Umar Harun, Li Sing-Chung, Chin Xuan Tan, Vuanghao Lim, Amir Husni, Widiastuti Setyaningsih . Ultrasound-assisted extraction of phenolic compounds from ear mushrooms (Auricularia auricula-judae): Assessing composition and antioxidant activity during fruiting body development. AIMS Agriculture and Food, 2024, 9(4): 1134-1150. doi: 10.3934/agrfood.2024059
    [4] Marlin Marlin, Marulak Simarmata, Umi Salamah, Waras Nurcholis . Effect of nitrogen and potassium application on growth, total phenolic, flavonoid contents, and antioxidant activity of Eleutherine palmifolia. AIMS Agriculture and Food, 2022, 7(3): 580-593. doi: 10.3934/agrfood.2022036
    [5] Pham Thi Thu Ha, Nguyen Thi Bao Tran, Nguyen Thi Ngoc Tram, Vo Hoang Kha . Total phenolic, total flavonoid contents and antioxidant potential of Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in Vietnam. AIMS Agriculture and Food, 2020, 5(4): 635-648. doi: 10.3934/agrfood.2020.4.635
    [6] Olukemi Osukoya, Adewale Fadaka, Olusola Adewale, Oluwatobi Oluloye, Oluwafemi Ojo, Basiru Ajiboye, Deborah Adewumi, Adenike Kuku . In vitro anthelmintic and antioxidant activities of the leaf extracts of Theobroma cacao L.. AIMS Agriculture and Food, 2019, 4(3): 568-577. doi: 10.3934/agrfood.2019.3.568
    [7] Thornthan Sawangwan, Chompoonuth Porncharoennop, Harit Nimraksa . Antioxidant compounds from rice bran fermentation by lactic acid bacteria. AIMS Agriculture and Food, 2021, 6(2): 578-587. doi: 10.3934/agrfood.2021034
    [8] Ebrahim Falahi, Zohre Delshadian, Hassan Ahmadvand, Samira Shokri Jokar . Head space volatile constituents and antioxidant properties of five traditional Iranian wild edible plants grown in west of Iran. AIMS Agriculture and Food, 2019, 4(4): 1034-1053. doi: 10.3934/agrfood.2019.4.1034
    [9] María Cámara-Ruiz, José María García Beltrán, Francisco Antonio Guardiola, María Ángeles Esteban . In vitro and in vivo effects of purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.) on gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata L.). AIMS Agriculture and Food, 2020, 5(4): 799-824. doi: 10.3934/agrfood.2020.4.799
    [10] Patrick A. Blamo Jr, Hong Ngoc Thuy Pham, The Han Nguyen . Maximising phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity from Laurencia intermedia using ultrasound-assisted extraction. AIMS Agriculture and Food, 2021, 6(1): 32-48. doi: 10.3934/agrfood.2021003

  • This qualitative study is part of Smart Indigenous Youth, a digital health community trial involving rural schools in Saskatchewan, Canada. Secondary school administrators and educators were engaged as citizen scientists in rural Indigenous communities to understand rapid decision-making processes for preserving school health during the COVID-19 pandemic, and to inform evidence-based safe school policies and practices. After COVID-19 restrictions were implemented, key informant interviews and focus groups were conducted with school administrators and educators, respectively, to understand the impact of school responses and decision-making processes. Two independent reviewers conducted thematic analyses and compared themes to reach consensus on a final shortlist. Four main themes emerged from the administrator interviews, and six main themes were identified from the educator focus group discussions which revealed a pressing need for mental health supports for students and educators. The study findings highlight the challenges faced by schools in rural and remote areas during the COVID-19 pandemic, including school closures, students' reactions to closures, measures taken by schools to preserve health during the pandemic, and different approaches to implement for future closures. Citizen scientists developed a set of recommendations, including the need for structured communication, reflection meetings, adequate funding, and external monitoring and evaluation to guide evidence-based safe school policies and practices during the pandemic.


    1.   Introduction

    Coffee is a popular beverage worldwide. Spent coffee grounds (SCG) are the residual material obtained from coffee brewing. SCG have been studied as a source of polysaccharides [1] and bioactive compounds [2]. However, SCG are still underutilized even though they contain several useful compounds for the food industry. One of these interesting compounds is protein. It has been reported that SCG have 13–17% protein content [2,3]. Thus, there is a need to transform coffee by-products into a value-added compound for reuse in the food system. Generally, alkali treatment is the conventional method used to extract protein from rice bran [4], coconut by-products [5], walnut [6] and legumes [7]. Tao et al. [8] reported that an extreme alkaline treatment could reduce cell wall rigidity and improve the functional properties of okara protein.

    At present, ultrasonic techniques, especially high intensity ultrasound, are widely used in the food industry for extraction, emulsification, crystallization, depolymerization, fermentation and microbial deactivation [6]. The sound waves produce high shear forces to disrupt the cell walls and allow solvent penetration into the material cells resulting in the release of compounds [9]. Application of ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE) is simple and effective technique compared to conventional extractions (CE). Moreover, several studies showed that UAE enhanced protein extraction combined with conventional solvent extraction [10]. For example, a high extraction yield of protein was obtained from defatted soy flakes at 46% ultrasound amplitude, compared to the control sample without ultrasound [11]. Preece et al. [12] reported that the protein extraction yield from okara using pilot-scale UAE increased by 4.2%. Furthermore, UAE improved the water and oil absorption and protein yield of rice bran protein concentrate compared with CE [4] and ultrasonic treatment increased the water solubility and improved the emulsifying properties of walnut proteins [6]. In addition, UAE was used as a pretreatment to enhance the aggregates of okara protein which improved the foaming stability index and emulsion stability [8]. Wen et al. [13] found that protein extraction yield from coffee silverskin using alkaline extraction by UAE was increased by 2.8 times, compared to CE. Nonetheless, Connolly et al. [14] reported that the alkaline extracted brewers' spent grain had a protein content ranging from 38.96 to 46.16%. Most works have been done on the extraction of polysaccharides, caffeine and polyphenols from SCG. However, there is scarce on the study of the extraction and characterization of protein from SCG. Due to the remarkable amount of SCG disposal, UAE might be a technique to extract a relatively valuable protein from SCG with the improvement of functional properties and antioxidant activity to further use for pharmaceutical and food application. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the effect of UAE as a pretreatment to CE on the properties of SCG protein (SCGP).

    2.   Materials and methods

    2.1.   Materials

    Spent coffee grounds (SCG) as a coffee by-product were collected from a coffee shop in Nakhon Pathom province, Thailand, being derived from a mixture of the Robusta (90%) and Arabica (10%) coffee varieties. Folin-Ciocalteu reagent was purchased from Merck KGaA (Darmstadt, Germany). Gallic acid monohydrate, 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), Trolox ((±)-6-hydroxy-2, 5, 7, 8-tetramethylchromane-2-carboxylic acid) and bovine serum albumin (BSA) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) was purchased from Ajax Fine-chem Pty Ltd (Taren Point, New South Wales, Australia). All chemicals and reagents used in this study were analytical grade.

    2.2.   Methods

    2.2.1.   Preparation of spent coffee grounds

    The SCG were collected and dried at 60 ℃ for 24 h in a hot-air dryer (RedLINE RF 115, Tuttlingen, Germany) until the moisture content was less than 5% (wet basis). The SCG were defatted using petroleum ether as solvent using a solid:liquid ratio of 50:500 g/mL per bottle (1000 mL) in a shaking water bath (Memmert WNB 7–45, Schwabach, Germany) at 28 ℃ for 24 h. Then, the defatted SCG were dried overnight under a hood at room temperature (28 ± 2 ℃) until constant weight was reached. The samples were kept in a polyethylene zip-lock bag and stored at room temperature for further analyses.

    2.2.2.   Protein extraction of spent coffee grounds
    2.2.2.1.   Conventional extraction

    Protein extraction of SCG was done according to the modified method of Rodsamran and Sothornvit [5]. The SCG (60 g) were mixed with distilled water (720 mL) as solvent and the mixture was adjusted to pH 11 using 0.7 M tri-sodium orthophosphate (Na3PO4). The mixture was continually stirred at 50 ℃ for 1 h in a water bath. After that, the mixture was centrifuged at 10, 000 × g and 0 ℃ for 10 min using a refrigerated centrifuge (Eppendorf centrifuge 5804R, Hamburg, Germany) to obtain the supernatant. To increase the protein content, the supernatant was precipitated by adjusting to pH 4 using 3M HCl. Precipitated proteins were washed with distilled water, centrifuged and then stored at -50 ℃ for 48 h in a freezer (Elcold DK-9500, Hobro, Denmark) and lyophilized using a freeze dryer (Scanvac Coolsafe 100-4 Pro, Lynge, Denmark) for 24 h. The dried SCGP samples were kept in polyethylene zip-lock bags at room temperature (28 ℃) prior to further analyses.

    2.2.2.2.   Ultrasonic-assisted extraction as a pretreatment compared to conventional extraction

    UAE of SCG was used as a pretreatment prior to continuing with CE. Briefly, the SCG-solvent sample (pH 11) was extracted using different ultrasound amplitudes (40, 60 and 80%) and extraction times (10, 20 and 30 min) with the pulse duration mode (20 s on and 20 s off) of an ultrasound processor (VCX 750, Sonics & Materials, Inc., Newtown, CT, USA) and a 25 mm diameter stainless probe. After the pretreatment with UAE, the sample was extracted by heating in a water bath (CE) as described in section 2.2.2.1.

    2.2.3.   Physicochemical properties

    Protein content

    The total protein contents of samples were evaluated using the Kjeldahl method with a conversion factor of 6.25 based on the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) methods [15]. A protein sample (1.0 g) was digested in a presence of a Kjeldahl catalyst (5 g) and 20 mL of concentrated H2SO4 in a digestion flask by boiling until the solution was clear. Then, the solution was cooled at room temperature and then cautiously added 60 mL of distilled water and connected for distillation. The 50 mL of 40% NaOH solution was added to the solution to form the ammonia gas. The ammonia was trapped in a 50 mL of 4% H3BO3 solution. Then approximately 150 mL of distillate was collected and titrated with 0.2 N HCl and 6-7 drops of methyl red as an indicator until the solution changes from green to pinkish. The blank was also done the same way without sample. Protein content was calculated using Eq. (1):

    Protein content (%) = (A-B)×N×1.4007×6.25W (1)

    where: A = volume (mL) of 0.2 N HCl used for sample; B = volume (mL) of 0.2 N HCl used in blank; N = Normality of HCl; W = weight (g) of sample.

    2.2.4.   Functional properties
    2.2.4.1.   Water and oil absorption capacity

    The water absorption capacity (WAC) and oil absorption capacity (OAC) were evaluated according to the method of Rodsamran and Sothornvit [5]. A protein sample (20 mg) and 1.5 mL of distilled water or soybean oil were mixed in a vortex for 20 s in a 2 mL centrifuge tube and then allowed to stand at 30 ℃ for 30 min. The tubes were centrifuged at 10, 000 × g for 20 min at room temperature. The free water or oil was removed using a pipette and the water or oil-absorbed sample was weighed. The WAC and OAC were expressed as grams of water or oil absorbed per gram of protein sample.

    2.2.4.2.   Foaming capacity and stability

    The foaming capacity (FC) and foaming stability (FS) method were determined using the method of Rodsamran and Sothornvit [5]. A protein sample (200 mg) was prepared in 20 mL distilled water (V), adjusted to pH 11 with 0.7 M Na3PO4 solutions and stirred at 30 ℃ for 30 min. Then, the protein solution was homogenized at 919 × g for 1 min in a high speed homogenizer (Polytron® PT-MR 3100D, Kinematica AG, Luzern, Switzerland). The whipped protein sample was transferred into a 50 mL graduated cylinder and the volume was recorded at 0 min (V0) and 60 min (V1). The FC and FS were calculated using Eqs. (2) and (3), respectively.

    FC=V0−VV×100 (2)
    FS=V1−VV×100 (3)
    2.2.4.3.   Emulsifying properties

    The emulsifying activity index (EAI) and the emulsifying stability index (ESI) were calculated according to the modified method of Pearce and Kinsella [16]. A sample of protein solution (10 mg/mL, WE) was adjusted to pH 11 with 0.7 M Na3PO4 solutions and stirred at 30 ℃ for 30 min. A sample of 18 mL of protein solution was mixed with soybean oil (2 mL) and then homogenized at 13, 500 rpm for 1 min. A sample of 50 μL of the emulsion was pipetted at 0 and 10 min from the bottom of the tube and diluted with 5 mL of 0.1% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) solution. After homogenization, the absorbance of the emulsion at 0 min (A0) and 10 min (A10) was measured at 500 nm using a spectrophotometer (Shimadzu UV–Visible 1800, Tokyo, Japan). The EAI and ESI were calculated using Eqs. (4) and (5), respectively.

    EAI(m2/g)=2×2.303×A00.1×WE (4)
    EAI(min)=A0×10A0−A10 (5)
    2.2.4.4.   Sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE)

    SDS-PAGE was run according to the method of Samsalee and Sothornvit [17] in a Mini Protein II electrophoresis unit (Bio-Rad Laboratories Inc., Richmond, CA, USA). The dried precipitate proteins were dissolved in distilled water (5 mg/mL), adjusted to pH 11, mixed for 1 min using a vortex and centrifuged at 12, 000 × g for 10 min. The supernatant protein solutions (20 μL) were mixed with 20 μL of sample buffer (containing 950 μL Laemmli buffer and 50 μL β-mercaptoethanol) and then heated at 90 ℃ for 10 min. Ten μL of each sample and marker (Precision Plus Protein All Blue standard, Bio-Rad Laboratories Inc., Richmond, CA, USA) were loaded onto 4–20% precast polyacrylamide gel (Mini-Protein® TGXTM Precast Gels). Electrophoresis was performed in an electrode buffer (containing 25 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.3, 0.19 M glycine and 0.1% SDS) at 120 V for approximately 40 min. Protein was stained with 0.125% Coomassie brilliant blue G 250 and destained with 30% methanol and 10% acetic acid.

    2.2.4.5.   Total phenolic content

    The total phenolic content (TPC) was determined using the Folin-Ciocalteu assay. The protein solution (1 mg/mL) was prepared in distilled water and stirred at 30 ℃ for 30 min. The solution was centrifuged at 126 × g for 10 min. The 0.8 mL supernatant samples were mixed with 4 mL of 10% Folin-Ciocalteu reagent and then 3.2 mL of 10% sodium carbonate were added to each mixture and vortexed for 20 s. The mixtures were incubated at room temperature for 2 h. The absorbance of each sample was measured at 750 nm against a blank using a spectrophotometer. Gallic acid was used as a standard and the TPC was expressed as milligrams of gallic acid equivalent (GAE) per gram of sample.

    2.2.4.6.   Antioxidant activity based on DPPH assay

    The antioxidant activity was determined according to the modified method of Geremu et al. [18]. The protein solution (1 mg/mL) was prepared in distilled water and stirred at 30 ℃ for 30 min. The solution was centrifuged at 126 × g for 10 min. Extracts (2 mL) were mixed with 4 mL of 0.4 mM methanolic solution of DPPH. The mixtures were stored at room temperature in the dark for 30 min and the absorbance was measured at 517 nm against a blank using a spectrophotometer. The percentage of radical-scavenging ability was calculated based on Eq. (6) and the results were expressed as millimolar of Trolox equivalent per gram of sample.

    Scavengingability(%)=[1−AsampleAcontrol]×100 (6)
    2.2.4.7.   Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectra

    The FT-IR spectra of protein samples were determined using a Perkin Elmer Spectrum 100 instrument (PerkinElmer Inc., Waltham, MA, USA) for the wavenumber range 4000–650 cm-1, with the attenuated total reflectance technique. Spectra were recorded in absorbance mode based on 16 scans per spectrum at a resolution of 4 cm-1. The interference of water and CO2 from air was deducted during scanning.

    2.2.4.8.   X-Ray Diffraction Analysis

    X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of SCGP samples were performed using a X-ray diffraction (Aeris 600W, PANalytical, Netherlands) operating at a CuKα wavelength of 0.154 nm. The samples were exposed to the X-ray beam with the X-ray generator running at 40 kV and 15 mA. Distribution patterns were obtained at 2ϴ angles, 10 to 70 ℃ at room temperature (25 ℃) and step size of 0.02°.

    2.3.   Statistical analyses

    A completely randomized design was used in this experiment. Three replications were used to determine each property. Data were subjected to analysis of variance and Duncan's multiple range test was used to determine significant differences at the 95% confidence interval. Analysis was performed using the SPSS package (SPSS 11.0 for Windows; SPSS Inc.; Chicago, IL, USA).

    3.   Results and discussion

    3.1.   Physicochemical properties

    The total protein content of SCG was 15.97% (Table 1) similar to the values reported by Mussatto et al. [2] and Ballesteros et al. [3] in the same material (13.6 and 17.44%, respectively). Variations in the protein content corresponded to the variety of the coffee beans and the brewing conditions used [3]. There was no effect of UAE on the total protein content of SCGP, compared with that using CE alone. The total protein content of all SCGP varied from 29.48 to 33.95% (Table 1). According to previous studies, the extraction of protein from other related by-products were reported such as brewers' spent grain (38.96–46.16%) [14] and defatted rice bran (76.09%) [4]. The higher protein content compared to our results might be due to the effects of different extraction conditions (such as extraction method, extraction temperature and extraction time) including types of raw materials. Although the protein content of SCGP might not be as high, the large amount of SCG disposal is significant and the waste valorization opens an opportunity and challenge for the future researches. Nevertheless, different UAE extraction times (10, 20 and 30 min) did not result in any significant differences in the protein contents at the same amplitude (Table 1). We hypothesized that the protein content from SCG was extracted and completely released within the first 10 min of UAE extraction.

    Table 1.  Physicochemical properties, antioxidant activity and total phenolic content of spent coffee grounds and spent coffee ground protein using conventional extraction and ultrasonic-assisted extraction.
    Extraction condition Ultrasonic
    extraction time (min)    		 Protein content (%) Total phenolic content
    (mg GAE/g SCGP)    		 DPPH
    (mM Trolox eq/g SCGP)
    SCG - 15.97±1.10a - -
    CE - 32.11±0.52cd 159.83±13.80a 576.17±0.48a
    UAE 40% 10 32.42±2.08cd 157.26±4.63a 591.63±75.03ab
    UAE 40% 20 33.95±1.62d 304.81±3.94bc 933.92±49.90e
    UAE 40% 30 31.55±1.36bcd 297.73±31.23bc 784.85±16.90cd
    UAE 60% 10 31.20±1.05bc 317.73±50.38bc 937.11±27.13e
    UAE 60% 20 32.23±2.39cd 288.65±6.94b 976.07±22.53e
    UAE 60% 30 32.52±1.24cd 344.82±1.39c 859.28±82.38de
    UAE 80% 10 29.90±2.07bc 164.76±1.19a 694.59±60.05bc
    UAE 80% 20 29.48±1.85b 267.66±35.33b 961.17±24.37e
    UAE 80% 30 31.78±1.89bcd 139.29±9.31a 712.41±27.61c
    Data are mean±standard deviation.
    Different superscripts (a, b, c, d, e) in each column indicate significant (p < 0.05) differences due to protein extraction method.
     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    3.2.   Functional properties

    3.2.1.   Water and oil absorption capacity

    The WAC of SCGP using CE alone was 2.98 g/g protein sample (Figure 1). The extraction time of UAE did not affect the WAC but different amplitude levels resulted in a significant difference in the WAC of SCGP. The SCGP using UAE at 40% amplitude for 10 and 30 min had the highest WAC value compared to the other SCGP samples. This might have been due to the effect of cavitation in UAE breaking the covalent bonds of biopolymeric chains and increasing the mobility of molecules to absorb water compared to that using CE alone [19]. Similarly, Chittapalo and Noomhorm [4] reported that rice bran protein concentrates using UAE had higher WAC values compared to the CE method.

    Figure 1.  Water absorption capacity (WAC) and oil absorption capacity (OAC) of spent coffee ground protein using conventional extraction and ultrasonic-assisted extraction at different amplitudes and times of extraction. Different letters (a, b, c) indicate significant (p < 0.05) differences in each property. Error bars show standard deviation.
    DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

    The UAE at 40% and 60% amplitudes had higher OAC values of SCGP than from using 80% amplitude (Figure 1). Changing the extraction time of UAE had no significant effect on the OAC values. Again, the cavitation effect of UAE was possibly a reason for the increase in the OAC of SCGP. The OAC of SCGP using CE alone was 2.92 g/g protein sample, being similar to the results for all SCGP samples using UAE at 80% amplitude. The higher values of WAC and OAC of the protein made it a suitable ingredient for food products such as breads, cakes and muffins where both hydration and shortening are desirable parameters [7].

    3.2.2.   Foaming capacity and stability

    The foaming capacity and stability of SCGP using CE alone were 72.50% and 51.25%, respectively (Figure 2). Using UAE did not help to improve the foaming capacity and stability of SCGP compared to using CE alone. In contrast, the foaming properties significantly increased in the SCGP using UAE at 80% amplitude for 10 min. This might have been due to the higher amplitude of UAE given the uniform dispersion of the protein and fat particles that finally improved the foaming property [20]. Similarly, a significantly large increase was reported in the foam capacity of ultrasound-treated wheat gluten with increasing ultrasound power levels (60%, 80% and 100% amplitudes for 10 min), which might have resulted from denaturation of the wheat protein due to the exposure of more hydrophobic regions [21]. The hydrophobic regions are taken into account in adsorption on the air-water interface molecules [20,21]. Therefore, UAE might be considered to improve the protein properties.

    Figure 2.  Foaming capacity and foaming stability of spent coffee ground protein using conventional extraction alone and ultrasonic-assisted extraction at different amplitudes and times of extraction. Different letters (a, b, c, d) indicate significant (p < 0.05) differences in each property. Error bars show standard deviation.
    DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint
    3.2.3.   Emulsifying properties

    The EAI evaluates the area of interface stabilized per unit weight of protein, whereas ESI evaluates the ability of the emulsion to resist changes to its structure over a certain period of time [22]. UAE at the different amplitude levels and extraction times did not improve the ESI compared to the CE treatment except at 80% amplitude for 10 min of UAE treatment (Figure 3). The emulsion activity of protein is altered by the interfacial interaction of water-oil interfaces which are controlled by several factors such as the ability of protein molecules to absorb at the water-oil interface, the strength of the membrane around the oil droplets and the ability of protein molecules to organize the hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups at the water-oil interface [23].

    Figure 3.  Emulsifying activity index (EAI) and emulsion stability index (ESI) of spent coffee ground protein using conventional extraction alone and ultrasonic-assisted extraction at different amplitudes and times of extraction. Different letters (a, b, c) indicate significant (p < 0.05) differences in each property. Error bars show standard deviation.
    DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint
    3.2.4.   Sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE)

    The ultrasound amplitude and time of extraction did not affect the protein pattern of SCGP (Figure 4). All SCGP samples following the CE and UAE had the highest protein band intensity (at around 15–20 kDa) compared to SCG. There was a clear, lower protein band intensity in the initial SCG, while the protein band intensity increased in SCGP after the extraction process of SCG using CE or UAE corresponding to the total protein content of samples. Bau et al. [24] reported that seeds of Coffea arabica contain the main reserved protein, consisting of two main bands at approximately 35 and 20 kDa. Moreover, SCGP using UAE did not modify the protein patterns in SDS-PAGE corresponding to the results in wheat gluten [21] and walnut protein isolate [6]. This indicated that the ultrasonic treatment did not alter the primary structure of the proteins [25]. Furthermore, this result confirmed that the molecular weight of the SCGP was not changed when using ultrasound treatment.

    Figure 4.  SDS-PAGE profiles of spent coffee ground protein using conventional extraction (CE) alone and ultrasonic-assisted extraction at different amplitudes and times of extraction.
    DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint
    3.2.5.   Total phenolic content

    The UAE at 60% amplitude for 30 min produced a significantly higher (by 2 times) TPC compared with CE alone (Table 1). Nevertheless, it did not differ with SCGP extraction at either 60% amplitude for 10 min or at 40% amplitude for 20 and 30 min. The ultrasonic waves accelerate heat and mass transfer during extraction processes; thus, they eventually disrupt the plant cell walls via cavitation effects and release the bioactive compounds [26]. However, the TPC decreased with 80% amplitude and a longer extraction time over 20 min. This was probably due to the longer extraction time resulting in the degradation of bioactive compounds [27]. It is implied that not only the conditions of UAE but also the different structures of samples are important factors affecting the TPC of extract obtained. Nonetheless, the TPC values of SCGP in this study (139.29–344.82 mg GAE/g protein extract) were in a range of TPC reported in the enzymatically hydrolyzed SCG (291.86 mg GAE/g sample) [28]. The difference might be due to the different raw materials. We hypothesize that the higher TPC values of SCGP were come from the other compositions left in the protein extract such as polysaccharide which also provided TPC as well.

    3.2.6.   Antioxidant activity based on DPPH assay

    The antioxidant activity of SCGP tended to increase following UAE (Table 1). The extraction time caused no significant difference in antioxidant activity at 60% amplitude. The highest antioxidant activity was obtained at 40% amplitude for 20 min, 60% amplitude for 10, 20, 30 min and 80% amplitude for 20 min (p > 0.05). This might have been due to UAE helping to accelerate solvent penetration and to release more active compounds than from using CE alone, resulting in higher antioxidant activity. As seen, the antioxidant activity of SCGP increased with extraction using UAE compared to using CE alone. This suggested the possibility of reusing SCG as an antioxidant compound. Antioxidant compounds have numerous applications in food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical areas because they can protect against chronic and degenerative diseases and decrease the risk factors of cardiovascular diseases [3].

    3.2.7.   Fourier transform infrared spectra

    The FT-IR spectra of all SCGP using the CE and UAE resulted in similar peaks (Figure 5). This is implied that there were no changes in the structure of the protein extract using UAE compared to using CE alone. The different amplitude levels and extraction times did not produce any differences in protein structure. Amide-I was found in the range between 1600 and 1700 cm-1, which corresponded to four conformation types of secondary structure of proteins: α-helix (1650–1660 cm-1), β-sheet (1610–1640 cm-1, 1670–1690 cm-1), β-turn (1660–1670 cm-1) and random coil (1640–1650 cm-1) [8]. These regions were associated with chlorogenic acid and caffeine found in SCG [3]. The major bands of the SCGP were prominent at approximately 3279, 2925, 1645, 1515 and 1232 cm-1, which were assigned to amide A (NH- stretching coupled with hydrogen bonding), amide B (CH stretching and –NH3+), amide I (C = O stretching/ hydrogen bonding coupled with COO) and amide II (bending vibration of the N-H groups and stretching vibration of the C-N groups), amide-III (vibration in plan of C-N and N-H groups of bound amide), respectively [17].

    Figure 5.  FT-IR spectra of spent coffee ground protein using conventional extraction alone and ultrasonic-assisted extraction at different amplitudes and times of extraction.
    DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint
    3.2.8.   X-Ray Diffraction

    Figure 6 shows the X-ray diffractograms of SCGP using UAE at 40%, 60% and 80% amplitude for 30 min. Diffractograms of other samples have not been presented due to the similar effects of different times on the structural properties of the samples. All SCGP samples had similar crystalline sharp peaks at 16.4°, 20.1°, 31.6°, 45.5° and 56.6° (2ϴ). The presence of a peak (2ϴ) at approximately 20° in all SCGP samples indicated the presence of β-sheet structure of the proteins [29], which were in agreements with the results on FT-IR. As shown, the peak intensity at 16.4° decreased with increasing ultrasound amplitude levels. This result could be related to the crystalline structure of SCGP was partially destroyed by ultrasonic treatment at high amplitude levels. Likewise, the crystallinity values of soluble dietary fiber from coffee peel by ultrasound-assisted enzymatic extraction were slightly lower than those of soluble dietary fiber from coffee peel by enzymatic extraction alone [30]. Moreover, the peak intensity at 31.6° of SCGP was related to diffraction of sample as a semi-crystalline polymer [30].

    Figure 6.  XRD diffractograms of spent coffee ground protein using ultrasonic-assisted extraction at: (A) 40 %, (B) 60% and (C) 80% amplitude for 30 min.
    DownLoad: Full-Size Img PowerPoint

    4.   Conclusions

    The UAE at different amplitude levels had little effect on the WAC and OAC values of SCGP. However, UAE at 80% amplitude for 10 min improved the foaming capacity, foaming stability, EAI and ESI of SCGP. Nevertheless, UAE produced high TPC and antioxidant activity of SCGP. Furthermore, UAE did not impact the structure of protein. Thus, the protein extract from SCG can be used as an alternative as food supplement or as functional food in a food system. This work shows the alternative way of waste valorization of SCG due to the large amount of SCG disposal at present.

    Acknowledgments

    The authors acknowledge the Kasetsart University Research and Development Institute (KURDI), Bangkok, Thailand for financial support throughout this research.

    Conflict of interest

    We have no conflicts of interest to declare.


    Acknowledgments


    The principal knowledge users of the Smart Indigenous Youth initiative are the school principals, the File Hills Qu'Appelle Tribal Council, and the Saskatchewan Ministries of Health, Education, and Sport. The Youth Citizen Scientist Advisory Council is involved in implementing Smart Indigenous Youth, and in shaping school policies and programs. We are grateful to the youth, educator, and administrator citizen scientists, and the staff and trainees of the Digital Epidemiology and Population Health Laboratory (DEPtH Lab) for their continuous support.
    The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Research Ethics Board of University of Regina and University of Saskatchewan (U of R File # 2017–029 and U of S file: # BEH 17–68 and date of approval is March 23, 2017).

    Funding


    This study was funded by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research's Project Grant (#153226).

    Conflict of interest


    All authors declare no conflicts of interest in this paper.

    [1] Donohue JM, Miller E (2020) COVID-19 and school closures. JAMA 324: 845-847. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.13092. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.13092
    [2] Gandolfi A (2021) Planning of school teaching during Covid-19. Physica D 415: 132753https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physd.2020.132753. doi: 10.1016/j.physd.2020.132753
    [3] Fu H, Hereward M, Macfeely S, et al. (2020) How COVID-19 is changing the world: A statistical perspective from the Committee for the Coordination of Statistical activities. Stat J IAOS 36: 851-860. https://doi.org/10.3233/SJI-200759. doi: 10.3233/SJI-200759
    [4] Marchant E, Todd C, James M, et al. (2021) Primary school staff perspectives of school closures due to COVID-19, experiences of schools reopening and recommendations for the future: A qualitative survey in Wales. PLoS One 16: e0260396https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260396. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0260396
    [5] United Nations Policy Brief: Education during COVID-19 and beyond, 2020 Available from: https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/wp-content/uploads/sites/22/2020/08/sg_policy_brief_covid-19_and_education_august_2020.pdf.
    [6] Azizi MR, Atlasi R, Ziapour A, et al. (2021) Innovative human resource management strategies during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic narrative review approach. Heliyon 7: e07233https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07233. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07233
    [7] Herath T, Herath HSB (2020) Coping with the new normal imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic: Lessons for technology management and governance. Inf Syst Manag 37: 277-283. https://doi.org/10.1080/10580530.2020.1818902. doi: 10.1080/10580530.2020.1818902
    [8] Rapanta C, Botturi L, Goodyear P, et al. (2020) Online university teaching during and after the Covid-19 crisis: Refocusing teacher presence and learning activity. Postdigit Sci Educ 2: 923-945. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42438-020-00155-y. doi: 10.1007/s42438-020-00155-y
    [9] Golberstein E, Wen H, Miller BF (2020) Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and mental health for children and adolescents. JAMA Pediatr 174: 819-820. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.1456. doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.1456
    [10] Harris A, Jones M (2020) COVID 19-school leadership in disruptive times. Sch Leadersh Manag 40: 243-247. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2020.1811479. doi: 10.1080/13632434.2020.1811479
    [11] OECD Policy Responses to Coronavirus (COVID-19) The impact of COVID-19 on student equity and inclusion: Supporting vulnerable students during school closures and school re-openings, 2020 Available from: https://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/the-impact-of-covid-19-on-student-equity-and-inclusion-supporting-vulnerable-students-during-school-closures-and-school-re-openings-d593b5c8/.
    [12] Kearney CA, Childs J (2021) A multi-tiered systems of support blueprint for re-opening schools following COVID-19 shutdown. Child Youth Serv Rev 122: 105919https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105919. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105919
    [13] The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine Reopening K-12 schools during the COVID-19 pandemic Prioritizing Health, Equity, and Communities, 2020, Available from: https://www.nap.edu/catalog/25858.
    [14] Bailey JP, Schurz J COVID-19 is creating a school personnel crisis, 2020 Available from: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED606250.pdf.
    [15] Esposito S, Cotugno N, Principi N (2021) Comprehensive and safe school strategy during COVID-19 pandemic. Ital J Pediatr 47: 1-4. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13052-021-00960-6. doi: 10.1186/s13052-020-00935-z
    [16] Applied Research Collaboration Health Protection Research Unit in Evaluation of Interventions at University of Bristol. Back to school study: Final rapid report, 2020 Avaliable from: https://arc-w.nihr.ac.uk/Wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/P520-Back-to-School-Rapid-final-report-FINAL.pdf.
    [17] Su Z, McDonnell D, Wen J, et al. (2021) Mental health consequences of COVID-19 media coverage: the need for effective crisis communication practices. Global Health 17: 4https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-020-00654-4. doi: 10.1186/s12992-020-00654-4
    [18] Kar SK, Arafat SMY, Kabir R, et al. (2019) Coping with mental health challenges during COVID-19. Coronavirus Dis 2020: 199-213. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4814-7_16.
    [19] Power T, Wilson D, Best O, et al. (2020) COVID-19 and indigenous peoples: An imperative for action. J Clin Nurs 29: 2737-2741. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocn.15320. doi: 10.1111/jocn.15320
    [20] Richardson L, Crawford A (2020) COVID-19 and the decolonization of indigenous public health. CMAJ 192: E1098-E1100. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.200852. doi: 10.1503/cmaj.200852
    [21] Katapally TR (2020) Smart indigenous youth: The smart platform policy solution for systems integration to address indigenous youth mental health. JMIR Pediatr Parent 3: e21155https://doi.org/10.2196/21155. doi: 10.2196/21155
    [22]  ECSA characteristics of citizen science, 2020 Available from: https://ecsa.citizen-science.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/ecsa_characteristics_of_citizen_science_-_v1_final.pdf.
    [23] Dickinson JL, Zuckerberg B, Bonter DN (2010) Citizen science as an ecological research tool: challenges and benefits. Annu Rev Ecol Evol S 41: 149-172. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-102209-144636. doi: 10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-102209-144636
    [24] Katapally TR, Bhawra J, Leatherdale ST, et al. (2018) The smart study, a mobile health and citizen science methodological platform for active living surveillance, integrated knowledge translation, and policy interventions: Longitudinal study. JMIR Public Health Surveill 4: e31https://doi.org/10.2196/publichealth.8953. doi: 10.2196/publichealth.8953
    [25] Silvertown J (2009) A new dawn for citizen science. Trends Ecol Evol 24: 467-471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2009.03.017. doi: 10.1016/j.tree.2009.03.017
    [26] Robinson LD, Cawthray JL, West SE, et al. (2018) Ten principles of citizen science. Citzen Sci 27-40. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv550cf2.9. doi: 10.2307/j.ctv550cf2.9
    [27] Haklay M, Fraisl D, Tzovaras BG, et al. (2020) Contours of citizen science: a vignette study. SocArXiv https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/6u2ky.
    [28] Rowbotham S, McKinnon M, Leach J, et al. (2019) Does citizen science have the capacity to transform population health science? Crit Public Health 29: 118-128. https://doi.org/10.1080/09581596.2017.1395393. doi: 10.1080/09581596.2017.1395393
    [29] Katapally TR (2020) A global digital citizen science policy to tackle pandemics like COVID-19. J Med Internet Res 22: e19357https://doi.org/10.2196/19357. doi: 10.2196/19357
    [30] Vahidi H, Taeai M, Yan W, et al. (2021) Digital citizen science for responding to COVID-19 crisis: Experiences from Iran. Int J Environ Res Public Health 18: 9666https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189666. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18189666
    [31] Beatty AL, Peyser ND, Butcher XE, et al. (2021) The COVID-19 citizen science study: Protocol for a longitudinal digital health cohort study. JMIR Res Protoc 10: e28169https://doi.org/10.2196/28169. doi: 10.2196/28169
    [32] Haeften SV, Milic A, Addison-Smith B, et al. (2020) Grass Gazers: Using citizen science as a tool to facilitate practical and online science learning for secondary school students during the COVID-19 lockdown. Ecol Evol 11: 3488-3500. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.6948. doi: 10.1002/ece3.6948
    [33] Katapally TR, Hammami N, Chu LM (2021) A randomized community trial to advance digital epidemiological and mHealth citizen scientist compliance: A smart platform study. PLoS One 16: e0259486https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0259486. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0259486
    [34] Katapally TR, Chu LM (2019) Methodology to derive objective screen-state from smartphones: a SMART platform study. Int J Environ Res Public Health 16: 2275https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16132275. doi: 10.3390/ijerph16132275
    [35] Arriagada P, Hahmann TH, O'Donnell V Statistics Canada. Indigenous people and mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic, 2020 Available from: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/45-28-0001/2020001/article/00035-eng.htm.
    [36] Allan B, Smylie J Wellesley Institute. First peoples, second class treatment: the role of racism in the health and well-being of indigenous peoples in Canada, 2015 Available from: https://www.homelesshub.ca/resource/first-peoples-second-class-treatment-role-racism-health-and-well-being-indigenous-peoples.
    [37] Hanson E Reserves, 2009 Available from: https://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/reserves/.
    [38] Katapally TR (2019) The SMART framework: Integration of citizen science, community-based participatory research, and systems science for population health science in the digital age. JMIR Mhealth Uhealth 7: e14056https://doi.org/10.2196/14056. doi: 10.2196/14056
    [39] Peltier C (2018) An application of two-eyed seeing: Indigenous research methods with participatory action research. Int J Qual Methods 17: 160940691881234https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406918812346. doi: 10.1177/1609406918812346
    [40] Wilson S (2008)  Research is ceremony: Indigenous research methods Winnipeg: Fernwood.
    [41] Kovach M (2010) Conversational method in indigenous research. First Peoples Child Fam Rev 5: 40-48. https://doi.org/10.7202/1069060ar. doi: 10.7202/1069060ar
    [42] Smith LT (2021)  Decolonizing methodologies: Research and indigenous peoples Zed Books Ltd., University of Otago Press. doi: 10.5040/9781350225282
    [43] Government of Canada Panel on Research Ethics. TCPS 2 (2018)–Chapter 9: Research Involving the First Nations, Inuit and Métis Peoples of Canada, 2019 Available from: https://ethics.gc.ca/eng/tcps2-eptc2_2018_chapter9-chapitre9.html.
    [44] Canadian Institutes of Health Research CIHR Guidelines for Health Research Involving Aboriginal People (2007–2010), 2013 Available from: https://cihr-irsc.gc.ca/e/29134.html.
    [45]  FNIGC The First Nations Principles of OCAP™ Available from: https://fnigc.ca/ocap-training/.
    [46] O'brien BC, Harris IB, Beckman TJ, et al. (2014) Standards for reporting qualitative research: a synthesis of recommendations. Acad Med 89: 1245-1251. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000000388. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0000000000000388
    [47] Braun V, Clarke V (2012) Thematic analysis. APA handbook of research methods in psychology, Vol 2: Research designs: Quantitative, qualitative, neuropsychological, and biological Washington: American Psychological Association, 57-71. https://doi.org/10.1037/13620-004. doi: 10.1037/13620-004
    [48] QSR International NVivo 12, 2021 Available from: https://support.qsrinternational.com/nvivo/s/topic/0TO2y000000TOmPGAW/nvivo-12-windows.
    [49] Davis A Regina Leader-Post, COVID-19: Sask. Schools suspended indefinitely starting Friday | Regina Leader Post, 2020 Available from: https://leaderpost.com/news/saskatchewan/covid-19-live-updates-new-measures-in-effect-as-sask-schools-remain-open.
    [50] Government of Canada Epidemiological summary of COVID-19 cases in First Nations communities, 2021 Available from: https://www.sac-isc.gc.ca/eng/1589895506010/1589895527965#age.
    [51] Hawthorn A CBC News, Why have Indigenous communities been hit harder by the pandemic than the population at large, 2021 Available from: https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/apocalypse-then-indigenous-covid-1.5997774.
    [52] Government of Canada Waakebiness-Bryce Institute for Indigenous Health (WBIIH). Public Health Agency of Canada. What we heard: Indigenous Peoples and COVID-19: Public Health Agency of Canada's companion report, 2021 Available from: https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/corporate/publications/chief-public-health-officer-reports-state-public-health-canada/from-risk-resilience-equity-approach-covid-19/indigenous-peoples-covid-19-report.html.
    [53] Saskatchewan Safe Schools Plan: More Resources, More Information, More Time And More Testing, 2020 Available from: https://www.saskatchewan.ca/government/news-and-media/2020/august/17/safe-schools-plan-more-resources.
    [54] Government of Canada Protecting the health and safety of Indigenous communities in close proximity to natural resource operations: Guidance for Indigenous communities, 2020 Available from: https://www.sac-isc.gc.ca/eng/1592487905243/1592487940872.
    [55] Government of Canada COVID-19 guidance for schools Kindergarten to Grade 12, 2021 Available from: https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/2019-novel-coronavirus-infection/health-professionals/guidance-schools-childcare-programs.html.
    [56] Scottish Government Children's rights and wellbeing impact assessment: The closure and reopening of schools as part of the COVID-19 recovery process in Scotland, 2020 Available from: https://www.gov.scot/publications/childrens-rights-wellbeing-impact-assessment-closure-reopening-schools-part-covid-19-recovery-process-scotland/.
    [57] Katapally TR, Rainham D, Muhajarine N (2015) Factoring in weather variation to capture the influence of urban design and built environment on globally recommended levels of moderate to vigorous physical activity in children. BMJ Open 5: e009045https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2015-009045. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2015-009045
    [58] Katapally TR, Rainham D, Muhajarine N (2016) The influence of weather variation, urban design and built environment on objectively measured sedentary behaviour in children. AIMS Public Health 3: 663-681. https://doi.org/10.3934/publichealth.2016.4.663. doi: 10.3934/publichealth.2016.4.663
    [59] Morrison W, Peterson P (2013)  Schools as a setting for promoting positive mental health: Better practices and perspectives Pan-Canadian Joint Consortium for School Health, Available from: https://www.jcsh-cces.ca/upload/JCSH Best Practice_Eng_Jan21.pdf.
    [60] Critch JN (2020) School nutrition: Support for providing healthy food and beverage choices in schools. Paediatr Child Health 25: 33-46. https://doi.org/10.1093/pch/pxz102. doi: 10.1093/pch/pxz102
    [61] Hoffman JA, Miller EA (2020) Addressing the consequences of school closure due to COVID-19 on children's physical and mental well-being. World Med Health Policy 12: 300-310. https://doi.org/10.1002/wmh3.365. doi: 10.1002/wmh3.365
    [62] Singh S, Roy D, Sinha K, et al. (2020) Impact of COVID-19 and lockdown on mental health of children and adolescents: A narrative review with recommendations. Psychiatry Res 293: 113429https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113429. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113429
    [63] Lee J (2020) Mental health effects of school closures during COVID-19. Lancet Child Adolesc Health 4: 421https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(20)30109-7. doi: 10.1016/S2352-4642(20)30109-7
    [64] Chew AMK, Ong R, Lei HH, et al. (2020) Digital health solutions for mental health disorders during COVID-19. Front Psychiatry 11: 898https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.582007.
    [65] Katapally TR Smart Indigenous Youth. The home of the smart platform: a digital epidemiological and citizen science initiative. A big data toolkit for digital health, precision medicine, and social innovation, 2019 Available from: https://tarunkatapally.com/smart-indigenous-youth/.
    [66] Hatala AR, Njeze C, Morton D, et al. (2020) Land and nature as sources of health and resilience among Indigenous youth in an urban Canadian context: A photovoice exploration. BMC Public Health 20: 538https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-08647-z. doi: 10.1186/s12889-020-08647-z
    [67] Sandoiu A Medical News Today. The effects of COVID-19 on the mental health of Indigenous communities, 2020 Available from: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/the-effects-of-covid-19-on-the-mental-health-of-indigenous-communities#Mental-health-impacts-of-the-pandemic.
    [68] World Health Organization Responding to noncommunicable diseases during and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic: examples of actions, 2020 Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-2019-nCoV-Non-communicable_diseases-Actions-2020.1.
    [69] Hobson GR, Caffery LJ, Neuhaus M, et al. (2019) Mobile health for first nations populations: Systematic review. JMIR Mhealth Uhealth 7: e14877https://doi.org/10.2196/14877. doi: 10.2196/14877
    [70] Carvalho S, Rossiter J, Angrist N, et al. (2020) Center for Global Development. Planning for school reopening and recovery after COVID-19 Available from: https://www.cgdev.org/sites/default/files/planning-school-reopening-and-recovery-after-covid-19.pdf.
  • publichealth-09-02-016-s001.pdf
    publichealth-09-02-016-s002.pdf

  • This article has been cited by:

    1. Laila Bijla, Rabha Aissa, Abdellatif Laknifli, Abdelhakim Bouyahya, Hicham Harhar, Said Gharby, Spent coffee grounds: A sustainable approach toward novel perspectives of valorization, 2022, 46, 0145-8884, 10.1111/jfbc.14190
    2. Kevin Johnson, Yang Liu, Mingming Lu, A Review of Recent Advances in Spent Coffee Grounds Upcycle Technologies and Practices, 2022, 4, 2673-2718, 10.3389/fceng.2022.838605
    3. Gustavo A. Figueroa Campos, Johannes G. K. T. Kruizenga, Sorel Tchewonpi Sagu, Steffen Schwarz, Thomas Homann, Andreas Taubert, Harshadrai M. Rawel, Effect of the Post-Harvest Processing on Protein Modification in Green Coffee Beans by Phenolic Compounds, 2022, 11, 2304-8158, 159, 10.3390/foods11020159
    4. Namfon Samsalee, Rungsinee Sothornvit, Different novel extraction techniques on chemical and functional properties of sugar extracts from spent coffee grounds, 2022, 7, 2471-2086, 897, 10.3934/agrfood.2022055
    5. Rewati Raman Bhattarai, Hayder Al-Ali, Stuart K. Johnson, Extraction, Isolation and Nutritional Quality of Coffee Protein, 2022, 11, 2304-8158, 3244, 10.3390/foods11203244
    6. Aurenice Maria Mota da Silva, Flávia Souza Almeida, Marcos Fellipe da Silva, Rosana Goldbeck, Ana Carla Kawazoe Sato, How do pH and temperature influence extraction yield, physicochemical, functional, and rheological characteristics of brewer spent grain protein concentrates?, 2023, 139, 09603085, 34, 10.1016/j.fbp.2023.03.001
    7. Mohammed Worku, Production, productivity, quality and chemical composition of Ethiopian coffee, 2023, 9, 2331-1932, 10.1080/23311932.2023.2196868
    8. Panusorn Hunsub, Somkiat Ngamprasertsith, Nattapong Prichapan, Winatta Sakdasri, Aphichart Karnchanatat, Ruengwit Sawangkeaw, Life cycle assessment of spray-drying encapsulation of crude peptides produced from defective green coffee beans, 2024, 1618-954X, 10.1007/s10098-024-02913-z
    9. Richard Q. Mensah, Prapakorn Tantayotai, Kittipong Rattanaporn, Santi Chuetor, Suchata Kirdponpattara, Mohamed Kchaou, Pau-Loke Show, Solange I. Mussatto, Malinee Sriariyanun, Properties and applications of green-derived products from spent coffee grounds – Steps towards sustainability, 2024, 26, 2589014X, 101859, 10.1016/j.biteb.2024.101859
    10. Yeganeh Azimi Youshanlouei, Hossein Kiani, Mohammad Mousavi, Zeinab E. Mousavi, Yang Tao, Ronald Halim, Persian everlasting pea (Lathyrus rotundifolius L.) protein isolate as a potential protein source for food application: Effect of ultrasound‐assisted extraction method on the properties of the protein isolates, 2024, 47, 0145-8876, 10.1111/jfpe.14533
    11. Laila Bijla, Asma Hmitti, Angela Fadda, Samira Oubannin, Jamila Gagour, Rabha Aissa, Abdellatif Laknifli, El Hassan Sakar, Said Gharby, Valorization of spent coffee ground as a natural antioxidant and its use for sunflower oil shelf‐life extension, 2024, 126, 1438-7697, 10.1002/ejlt.202300115
    12. Hisham Ahmed, Rasaq S. Abolore, Swarna Jaiswal, Amit K. Jaiswal, Toward Circular Economy: Potentials of Spent Coffee Grounds in Bioproducts and Chemical Production, 2024, 4, 2673-8783, 286, 10.3390/biomass4020014
    13. Farjana Yeasmin, Priyanka Prasad, Jatindra K. Sahu, Effect of ultrasound on physicochemical, functional and antioxidant properties of red kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) proteins extract, 2024, 57, 22124292, 103599, 10.1016/j.fbio.2024.103599
    14. Panusorn Hunsub, Kanokporn Ponmana, Somkiat Ngamprasertsith, Winatta Sakdasri, Aphichart Karnchanatat, Ruengwit Sawangkeaw, Production of Coffee oil and Bioactive Peptides from Spent Coffee Grounds via Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extraction and Enzymatic Hydrolysis, 2024, 15, 1877-2641, 2061, 10.1007/s12649-023-02264-8
    15. Tanim Arpit Singh, Namrata Pal, Poonam Sharma, Ajit Kumar Passari, Spent coffee ground: transformation from environmental burden into valuable bioactive metabolites, 2023, 22, 1569-1705, 887, 10.1007/s11157-023-09669-w
    16. Yasmine Abdellaoui, Ilyass Bougaa, Houssame Limami, Ghita Elboukili, Abdelhai Rahmani, Asmae Khaldoun, 2024, 3294, 0094-243X, 020007, 10.1063/5.0247159
    17. Lorenzo Barozzi, Stella Plazzotta, Ada Nucci, Lara Manzocco, Elucidating the role of compositional and processing variables in tailoring the technological functionalities of plant protein ingredients, 2025, 26659271, 100971, 10.1016/j.crfs.2025.100971
    18. Jooyoung Kim, Yejin Park, Jihwan Shin, Sunhyun Kim, Hyungjin Lukas Kim, Sunyoung Bae, Sustainable protein extraction from spent coffee grounds using response surface methodology, 2025, 2190-6815, 10.1007/s13399-025-06546-0
    19. Paolo Joshua Olango, Ronie Lusares, Camila Flor Lobarbio, A review on the potential value-added applications of extracted protein and lipids from green coffee beans, 2025, 8, 2595-3982, 2025241, 10.31893/multirev.2025241
    20. Hazem Golshany, Mahbuba Siddiquy, Mahran Abdulla, Qun Yu, Liuping Fan, Ultrasound-enhanced extraction unlocks superior functional properties and bioactive profles in Fucus vesiculosus proteins: A comprehensive characterization study, 2025, 311, 01418130, 143913, 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2025.143913
  • Reader Comments
  • © 2022 the Author(s), licensee AIMS Press. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)
通讯作者: 陈斌, bchen63@163.com
  • 1. 

    沈阳化工大学材料科学与工程学院 沈阳 110142

  1. 本站搜索
  2. 百度学术搜索
  3. 万方数据库搜索
  4. CNKI搜索
AIMS Public Health
3.1 5.3

Metrics

Article views(7069) PDF downloads(314) Cited by(4)

Preview PDF
Download XML
Export Citation
Article outline
Abstract
   Introduction
   Materials and methods
   Results and discussion
.   Physicochemical properties
.   Functional properties
.1.   Water and oil absorption capacity
.2.   Foaming capacity and stability
.3.   Emulsifying properties
.4.   Sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE)
.5.   Total phenolic content
.6.   Antioxidant activity based on DPPH assay
.7.   Fourier transform infrared spectra
.8.   X-Ray Diffraction
   Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Conflict of interest
References

Other Articles By Authors

Related pages

Tools

Copyright © AIMS Press

/

DownLoad:  Full-Size Img  PowerPoint
Return
Return

Catalog