Loading [MathJax]/jax/element/mml/optable/BasicLatin.js
Research article Special Issues

Edge computing-based intelligent monitoring system for manhole cover


  • Unusual states of manhole covers (MCs), such as being tilted, lost or flooded, can present substantial safety hazards and risks to pedestrians and vehicles on the roadway. Most MCs are still being managed through manual regular inspections and have limited information technology integration. This leads to time-consuming and labor-intensive identification with a lower level of accuracy. In this paper, we propose an edge computing-based intelligent monitoring system for manhole covers (EC-MCIMS). Sensors detect the MC and send status and positioning information via LoRa to the edge gateway located on the nearby wisdom pole. The edge gateway utilizes a lightweight machine learning model, trained on the edge impulse (EI) platform, which can predict the state of the MC. If an abnormality is detected, the display and voice device on the wisdom pole will respectively show and broadcast messages to alert pedestrians and vehicles. Simultaneously, the information is uploaded to the cloud platform, enabling remote maintenance personnel to promptly repair and restore it. Tests were performed on the EI platform and in Dongguan townships, demonstrating that the average response time for identifying MCs is 4.81 s. Higher responsiveness and lower power consumption were obtained compared to cloud computing models. Moreover, the system utilizes a lightweight model that better reduces read-only memory (ROM) and random-access memory (RAM), while maintaining an average identification accuracy of 94%.

    Citation: Liang Yu, Zhengkuan Zhang, Yangbing Lai, Yang Zhao, Fu Mo. Edge computing-based intelligent monitoring system for manhole cover[J]. Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering, 2023, 20(10): 18792-18819. doi: 10.3934/mbe.2023833

    Related Papers:

    [1] Mebarek LAHBIB, Mohammed BOUSSAID, Houcine MOUNGAR, Ahmed TAHRI . Analytical assessment of the filed results on the PV system connectors performance under operating temperature. AIMS Energy, 2023, 11(3): 555-575. doi: 10.3934/energy.2023029
    [2] Yatindra K. Ramgolam, Kaviraj Bangarigadu . Simple and effective method for evaluating performance of Si based photovoltaic cell technologies. AIMS Energy, 2018, 6(4): 632-644. doi: 10.3934/energy.2018.4.632
    [3] Harry Ramenah, Philippe Casin, Moustapha Ba, Michel Benne, Camel Tanougast . Accurate determination of parameters relationship for photovoltaic power output by augmented dickey fuller test and engle granger method. AIMS Energy, 2018, 6(1): 19-48. doi: 10.3934/energy.2018.1.19
    [4] Carmine Cancro, Gabriele Ciniglio, Luigi Mongibello, Antonino Pontecorvo . Methodology for the characterization of the humidity behavior inside CPV modules. AIMS Energy, 2015, 3(4): 666-678. doi: 10.3934/energy.2015.4.666
    [5] Alemayehu T. Eneyaw, Demiss A. Amibe . Annual performance of photovoltaic-thermal system under actual operating condition of Dire Dawa in Ethiopia. AIMS Energy, 2019, 7(5): 539-556. doi: 10.3934/energy.2019.5.539
    [6] Muzaffar Ali, Hafiz.M. Ali, Waqar Moazzam, M. Babar Saeed . Performance enhancement of PV cells through micro-channel cooling. AIMS Energy, 2015, 3(4): 699-710. doi: 10.3934/energy.2015.4.699
    [7] Nadwan Majeed Ali, Handri Ammari . Design of a hybrid wind-solar street lighting system to power LED lights on highway poles. AIMS Energy, 2022, 10(2): 177-190. doi: 10.3934/energy.2022010
    [8] Yannick Fanchette, Harry Ramenah, Camel Tanougast, Michel Benne . Applying Johansen VECM cointegration approach to propose a forecast model of photovoltaic power output plant in Reunion Island. AIMS Energy, 2020, 8(2): 179-213. doi: 10.3934/energy.2020.2.179
    [9] M. Boussaid, A. Belghachi, K. Agroui, N.Djarfour . Mathematical models of photovoltaic modules degradation in desert environment. AIMS Energy, 2019, 7(2): 127-140. doi: 10.3934/energy.2019.2.127
    [10] Kaovinath Appalasamy, R Mamat, Sudhakar Kumarasamy . Smart thermal management of photovoltaic systems: Innovative strategies. AIMS Energy, 2025, 13(2): 309-353. doi: 10.3934/energy.2025013
  • Unusual states of manhole covers (MCs), such as being tilted, lost or flooded, can present substantial safety hazards and risks to pedestrians and vehicles on the roadway. Most MCs are still being managed through manual regular inspections and have limited information technology integration. This leads to time-consuming and labor-intensive identification with a lower level of accuracy. In this paper, we propose an edge computing-based intelligent monitoring system for manhole covers (EC-MCIMS). Sensors detect the MC and send status and positioning information via LoRa to the edge gateway located on the nearby wisdom pole. The edge gateway utilizes a lightweight machine learning model, trained on the edge impulse (EI) platform, which can predict the state of the MC. If an abnormality is detected, the display and voice device on the wisdom pole will respectively show and broadcast messages to alert pedestrians and vehicles. Simultaneously, the information is uploaded to the cloud platform, enabling remote maintenance personnel to promptly repair and restore it. Tests were performed on the EI platform and in Dongguan townships, demonstrating that the average response time for identifying MCs is 4.81 s. Higher responsiveness and lower power consumption were obtained compared to cloud computing models. Moreover, the system utilizes a lightweight model that better reduces read-only memory (ROM) and random-access memory (RAM), while maintaining an average identification accuracy of 94%.



    Nomenclatures: A: PV module area (m2); Eg: Energy gap of the semiconductor (eV); FF: Fill factor (%); ID, Io, Iph, Imp, IRS, Isc, Imo: Diode, saturation, photo-generated, maximum power point, reverse saturation, short circuit and module currents (A); k: Boltzmann constant 1.380649 × 10−23 (J K−1); n: Ideality factor; NP, NS: Number of cells in parallel and series; P: Electrical power (kW); q: Electronic charge = 1.602176634 × 10−19 (Coulombs); RS,Rsh: Series and Shunt resistance (Ohm); S: Solar irradiance (W/m2); Sref: Reference solar radiation (1000 W/m2); Tc: Cell temperature(℃); Tref: Reference temperature (25 ℃); V, VT, VMO, Vmp, Voc: Diode, thermal, module, maximum power point, open circuit voltages (V)

    Greek Symbols: ƞ: Electrical efficiency(%); α,β,δ,γ: Temperature coefficient of short circuit current, open circuit voltage, fill factor and maximum power (%/℃)

    The photovoltaic phenomenon is the most important technology that has been used to benefit from sun energy. It was used to convert solar energy into electrical directly through the so-called solar cell [1]. As a result of the development that took place in this field, the researchers have begun to develop and improve the performance of different types of solar cells like multi-junction, perovskite, and quantum [2,3,4,5]. Generally, the output electrical characteristics of PV solar cells are directly affected by the temperature variation. Whereas, the efficiency of the PV cell/module decreased with increasing the temperature [6,7] by 0.5% for each 1 ℃ [8,9]. Therefore, the influence of temperature variation on the behavior of PV cell/module should be described by the indicator of temperature coefficient. Where, the module temperature positively effects on the short circuit current (Isc) and negatively on both open circuit voltage (Voc), maximum power (Pmax) and fill factor (FF) [10]. In indoor conditions, the method of measuring coefficient of temperature is considered inaccurate due to the difference between the characteristics of sun light spectrum and the light that used in simulator of test [11]. In the same manner, inaccuracy of outdoor test occurs because it is not possible to obtain a uniform change in the increasing of sunlight [12]. In open circuit, the temperature coefficient is assumed to be equal to 80–90% of temperature coefficient of maximum power [13] and can be calculated according to the assumption that the energy gap linearly change with the temperature range. While, in maximum power, the temperature coefficient is defined as the summation of temperature coefficient of the Isc, Voc, and FF [14]. The main characteristics of indoor and outdoor measurements can be summarized according to: (1) the PV cell in indoor test is illuminated with solar simulator, and (2) the temperature of the solar cell should be stable with ±2 ℃ and temperature range should be at least 30 ℃ [15,16]. Besides, the oscillating of irradiance in outdoor should be kept within ±2% from the total solar irradiance, the wind speed not exceed 2 m/s, and the PV module temperature should be kept with ±2 ℃ of ambient temperature. According to the literatures review, a number of researchers were presented numerical and experimental studies to analyse the influence of temperature on the PV module performance. The experimental studies were divided between indoor and outdoor measurements. For example, Indra [17] studied the influence of temperature on the output characteristics of the polycrystalline PV module. The outdoor tests show that the maximum power decreased by 17% with changing the PV module temperature from 15 to 60 ℃. Moreover, Amelia et al. [18] investigated the effect of operating temperature on the PV module mono-crystalline type. At first, the manufactured output characteristics of the PV was simulated by PVsyst software. Furthermore, outdoor experiments were investigated using I-V tracer (PROVA 200). In addition, the temperature distribution is determined using a digital thermal camera. The outdoor results showed that a variation of output characteristics of the PV module compared with STCs whereas the output power and the efficiency of the PV module decreases with the increasing of the PV working temperature. Different types of the PV modules were tested indoor and outdoor by [16] to measure the temperature coefficients of Isc and Voc. The results of indoor test showed that a good agreement of the temperature coefficient with the results of the outdoor results. Singh and Ravindra [19] studied the influence of the temperature between 25 to 250 ℃ on the output characteristics of various types of PV modules. Their study was proved that the increasing of temperature lead to decrease each of the Voc, FF and efficiency. According to Jehad Adeeb et al. [20] study, the thin film module has less affected by increasing the temperature with less temperature coefficient about 0.0984% as compared with the other types. Where, the temperature coefficients were recorded 0.109%, for Mono-crystalline and −0.124% for Poly-crystalline. Based on the above literature review, it can be conclude that there is a relationship between the PV temperature and the outputs of the PV module, and can be determine the effects of the temperature on the PV output by indoor and outdoor tests. However, it can be seen that there is a limitation of using numerical analysis to determine the effects of the temperature on the PV outputs. For that, the main objective of this work is to study and analyze the effect of temperature on the output electrical characteristics of polycrystalline PV module using a numerical model validated by experimental test. In the numerical model, the I-V and P-V curves of the PV module were presented under the effect of module temperature ranges from 25 to 65 ℃ and solar irradiance ranges from 200 to 1000 W/m2 using MATLAB software. In addition, the validation of the simulation results are performed with experimental results for the PV module under real weather conditions using I-V tracer (SEAWARD PV200).

    The PV module is a group of solar cells connected in series or in parallel combination. Each cell has approximately 0.5 V. The electrical circuit of PV cell can be represented as shown in Figure 1.

    Figure 1.  Electrical circuit of PV cell [21].

    From Shockley equation [22,23], the current and voltage of PV cell in zero illumination can be represented by:

    ID=I0(e(VnVT)1) (1)

    where: V is the voltage across the cell, VT is the thermal voltage (k Tc/q), q is the electronic charge = 1.602176634 × 10−19 coulombs, Tc is the cell temperature (℃), k is the Boltzmann constant = 1.380649 × 10−23 J K−1 and n is the ideality factor of diode.

    I0 is the diode saturation current (A) and can be defined as [24]:

    I0=IRS(TcTref)3e(qEg(1Tref1Tc)nk) (2)

    where IRS is the reverse saturation current at STCs and Eg is the energy gap of the semiconductor used in the cell.

    With the sunlight, the current of the solar cell is offset due to the photo current as [25,26]:

    I=IphI0(e(qVnkT)1) (3)

    where: Iph is the photo-generated current (A) and expressed as [27]:

    Iph=SSref[Isc+α(TcTref)] (4)

    where: S is the instantaneous solar irradiance (kW/m2), Sref is the reference solar irradiance (1 kW/m2), Isc is the short circuit current at STCs and α is the temperature coefficient of the Isc.

    In case of series resistance, the current generation described by [28]:

    I=IphI0(e(q(VIRs)nkT)1) (5)

    where: RS is the series resistance due to resistance of the silicon-bulk and contact material.

    In case of parallel and series resistance, the current generation described by:

    I=IphI0(e(q(V+IRS   )nkT   )1)V+IRsRsh (6)

    where: Rsh is the shunt resistor due to inhomogeneity of the surface and loss-current at the solar cell edges.

    The voltage of the solar cell can be written as:

    V=IRS+klog[IphI+I0I0] (7)

    Equation 7 can be written in term of PV module as [24]:

    In case of PV cells in series:

    Vmo=ImoNSRS+NSklog[IphImo+IOI0] (8)

    In case of PV cells in parallel:

    Vmo=ImoRSNp+klog[NSIphImo+NpIONpI0] (9)

    where: mo represents the abbreviation of module, NS and Np are the number of cells in series and parallel respectively.

    Generally, production power of the PV module can be defined as [29]:

    P=NS×Np×V×I (10)

    while, the efficiency can be defined as [30]:

    ƞ=PS×A (11)

    where: A is a PV module area.

    The fill factor represents the ratio of maximum power to the theoretical [30]:

    FF=ImpVmpISCVOC (12)

    where Imp  and  Vmp are the current and voltage at maximum power point.

    The PV module efficiency depends on many types of losses. These losses can be confined as: thermalisation, transmission, emission, and angular mismatch and Carnot losses [10]. The increasing of PV temperature has a negative effect on these types of losses and can be represented by a temperature coefficients [31]. Commonly, the temperature coefficient is measured in indoor conditions and listed in the datasheet of the PV module. It can be classified into: Isc, VOC, FF and Pmax coefficients.

    The coefficient of temperature for Isc [10], Voc [32], FF [33,34] and for Pmax [14] can be represented by equations from 13 to 16 respectively.

    α=Isc(Tc)   Isc(Tref)TCTref (13)
    β=Voc(Tc)   Voc(Tref)TCTref (14)
    δ=1FFdFFdT (15)
    γ=α+β+δ (16)

    A polycrystalline PV module made by Fortuner (FRS-165W) was selected in this study to achieve the experimental tests. The PV module is fixed on a steel frame with tilt angle 33o towards the south depending on the latitude of site as shown in Figure 2. The main specifications of the PV module is presented in Table 1. I-V tracer (SEAWARD PV200) was used to measure the output electrical characteristics of the PV module including ISc, VOC, Vmp, Imp, and Pmax. Furthermore, a solar meter (Survey 200R) devise was synchronized with the SEAWARD PV200 to measure the ambient conditions (air temperature and solar radiation) and back temperature of module. All the measured data were stored in a computer and reviewed by solar data logger and then displayed by SolarCert software. The wind speed was measured by a handle anemometer. In addition, an infrared thermal digital camera (visual IR thermometer VT02) was used to image of temperature distribution on the front and back sides of the PV module.

    Figure 2.  Diagram of the outdoor test.
    Table 1.  Technical data of the PV module.
    Parameter Value
    Dimensions 149 × 67 cm
    Pmax 165 W
    Isc 9.81 A
    Voc 22.05 V
    Imp 9.17 A
    Vmp 18 V
    ƞ 20

     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    Iraq is considered one of the hot and dry countries in the summer season. Where, the maximum temperature reaches almost more than 50 ℃, especially in August month. Four days (1/8/2021, 5/8/2021, 11/8/2021 and 13/8/2021(were selected to measure the parameters of the PV module. As shown in Figure 3, the maximum average ambient temperature was reached about 51 ℃ at noon between (1:00 pm and 2:00 pm). Besides, the average solar radiation was recorded a maximum value about 940 W/m2 at noon as shown in Figure 4. While, the average wind velocity was not exceed 0.5 m/s in the morning at 6:00 am as shown in Figure 5.

    Figure 3.  Variation of ambient temperature during the test.
    Figure 4.  Variation of solar radiation during the test.
    Figure 5.  Variation of wind speed during the test.

    A MATLAB code was built based on the set of Eqs (1–16) and the technical data of PV module that tabulated in Table 1 to analyse the I-V and P-V curves of the PV module. In addition, the variation of VOC, Isc, Pmax and FF were represented with module temperature to analyze the temperature coefficients. The I-V and P-V curves were represented in ranges of module temperature and solar radiation between (25 to 65) ℃ and (200 to 1000) W/m2. While, the analysis of temperature coefficients were investigated at (600, 800, and 1, 000) W/m2. As shown in Figure 6, the Isc was varied from (9.6 to 9.8) A when the module temperature was changed from (25 to 65) ℃ at constant solar radiation 1000 W/m2. While, the Voc was decreased from (22.05 to 20.2) V resulting in a maximum power changed from (146 to 165) W as shown in Figure 7. It is observed that the increasing the temperature of PV module has critical effect on decreasing the voltage rather than increasing the current. This can be explained as follows: Increasing cell temperature lead to reduce of band gap energy, which indicates to increase the absorbed photons that results in producing more free charge carriers. In other words, lower energy needs to liberate the free charge carrier. This means that the number of flow electrons with more current and low energy will increase (drop in voltage) [30,35].

    Figure 6.  I-V curve of PV module at 1000 W/m2.
    Figure 7.  P-V curve of PV module at 1000 W/m2.

    On the other side, at constant temperature (25 ℃) and solar radiation varied from (200 to 1000) W/m2, the Isc, VOC were varied from (2 to 9.8) A and from (20.1 to 22.05) V respectively resulting in a maximum power range from (31 to 165) W as shown in Figures 8 and 9.

    Figure 8.  I-V curve of PV module at 25 ℃.
    Figure 9.  P-V curve of PV module at 25 ℃.

    The variation of output characteristics such as: Isc, Voc, Pmax, and FF with the module temperature are plotted in Figures (1013) for three values of solar radiation (600, 800 and 1, 000) W/m2. As shown in figures, the relationship seems to be a linear model with increasing trend in Isc and decreasing trend in Voc, Pmax, and FF. The temperature coefficients were calculated from the slop of straight lines presented in Table 2. As shown, the temperature coefficient (α) of Isc was obviously changed from 0.058 to 0.091 %/℃ when the solar radiation increased from 600 to 1000 W/m2. While, the temperature coefficient (𝛽) of Voc, (𝜸) of Pmax and (δ) of FF were little changed. As presented in Table 2, the regression equations of module are characterized by a high coefficient of determination (R2) with a range from 0.962 to 0.999. This is an indication that this regression correlation can be used to predict the output electrical characteristics of the PV module.

    Figure 10.  Variation of Isc with PV module temperature.
    Figure 11.  Variation of Voc with PV module temperature.
    Figure 12.  Variation of Pmax with PV module temperature.
    Figure 13.  Variation of FF with PV module temperature.
    Table 2.  Linear models of output characteristics and temperature coefficient.
    Solar radiation W/m2 Linear models and temperature coefficients
    Isc (A) Voc (V) FF (%) P (W)
    1000 Isc=0.008Tc+9.38α=0.0815%/CR2=0.9992 Voc=0.034 Tc+23β=0.15%/CR2=0.994 FF=0.120 Tc+80δ=0.155%/CR2=0.989 P=0.43 Tc+180γ=0.26%/CR2=0.993
    800 Isc=0.0085 Tc+9.285α=0.086%/CR2=0.9996  Voc=0.036 Tc+23β=0.163%/CR2=0.987 FF=0.12 Tc+79δ=0.155%/CR2=0.979 P=0.43 Tc+170γ=0.26%/CR2=0.997
    600 Isc=0.0074 Tc+9217α=0.075%/CR2=0.9993 Isc=0.035 Tc+23β=0.158%/CR2=0.986 FF=0.11 Tc+78δ=0.142%/CR2=0.989 P=0.38 Tc+160γ=0.23%/CR2=0.988

     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    The experimental investigation was investigated during four days of August (01/08/2021), (05/08/2021), (11/08/2021) and (13/08/2021) from 6:00 am to 2:00 pm at the center of Middle Technical University-Baghdad, Iraq. The output characteristics of PV module such as: Isc, Imp, Voc, Vmp, Pmax, FF, and electrical efficiency (ƞele) in addition to its back temperature were measured as shown in Figure 14. From figure, the maximum value of PV temperature was recorded about 69 ℃ in 13/08/2021 at 1:00 pm while the minimum temperature was recorded about 37 ℃ in 01/08/2021 at 6:00 am. According to the average value, the PV module temperature was recorded about 37.5 ℃ and 63 ℃ as a minimum and maximum value respectively. The module temperature was varied due to the variation of solar radiation and ambient temperature.

    Figure 14.  Variation of module temperature during the test.

    Furthermore, the front and back temperatures of the PV module were imaged using thermal digital camera for one day 01/08/2021 to compare between them as shown in Figure 15. The images were taken every one hour between 8:00 am to 1:00 pm. Generally, the PV back temperature was recorded a higher than the front temperature. Where, the maximum temperature of front and back was recorded 58.9 ℃ and 64.9 ℃ respectively at 11:00 am. This can be explained by the fact that the PV module was installed at average height not exceeding 1m from the ground surface (i.e., it closer to the ground) therefore, the air currents were very low. In addition, more heat will reflect from the ground surface toward the back surface of module.

    Figure 15.  Thermal image of front and back temperatures of PV module.

    Figure 16 shows the variation of module voltage with time. As shown, the Voc was slightly decrease from 20.75 to 20.35 V while, the Vmp was sharply decrease from maximum value 18.55 to 15.9 V due to the higher increase of module temperature. In contrast to this, the Isc and Imp were increased. Where, the Isc was increased from 1.72 to 7.32 A while, Imp was increased from 1.4 to 6.9 A as shown in Figure 17.

    Figure 16.  Variation of voltage during the test.
    Figure 17.  Variation of current during the test.

    As shown in Figure 4, the average solar irradiance was increased from 220 to 920 W/m2 during 6:00 am to 12:00 pm. Therefore, the electrical power was increased from 25.9 to 131.2 W then dropped to 109.7 W at 2:00 pm because of decreasing the solar irradiance to 770 W/m2 as shown in Figure 18. This is accompanied by a decline in the electrical efficiency (ƞele) of the module from 15.6% to 13.3% and decreasing in fill factor from 76% to 71%.

    Figure 18.  Variation of power, filling factor, and efficiency during the test.

    The temperature coefficients of current, voltage and maximum power were compared with same studies in literature [10,15,36] as presented in Table 3. The comparison was depended on the same type of PV modules (polycrystalline) that found in the previous studies. The structure of table was built according to technical data of PV module, ambient conditions and temperature coefficients. As presented in Table 3, the temperature coefficient of current (α) was close to the coefficient temperature in [36] at solar radiation 1000 W/m2 while, the coefficients of voltage (𝛽) and power max (𝜸) were recorded greater than those in [36]. In the same manner, all the temperature coefficients in present study recorded less than the coefficients of reference [10]. Otherwise, they recorded greater than the coefficients in reference [15]. On the other side, the linear model with Coefficient of Determination (R2) of the current, voltage and power equations were compared also with [36] at 1000 W/m2 as shown in Table 4. The comparison shows a good agreement between the two studies since the R2 value was very close.

    Table 3.  Comparison of temperature coefficients with previous studies.
    Ref. Technical data Country Type of study Solar radiationW/m2 Temp. Module℃ Temperature coefficients %/℃
    α (Isc) β (Voc) δ (FF) 𝜸 (Pmax)
    [36] Voc=44.9 VIsc=5.75 A Vmp=36.2 VImp=5.11 APmax Thailand Exp.Outdoor 1000 40–65 0.08181 −0.05185 NA −0.00038
    [10] V_\mathrm{o c}=0-50 \mathrm{~V}\\ I_{\mathrm{sc}}=0-15 \mathrm{~A}\\\mathrm{P}_{\max }>10 \mathrm{~W} Norway Exp.Outdoor > 400 10–70 0.171 −0.23 −0.42 −0.47
    [15] NA Nepal Numerical 1000 15–60 0.001 −0.073 −0.20 −0.132
    Present study \mathrm{V}_{\mathrm{oc}}=22.05 \mathrm{~V}\\\mathrm{I}_{\mathrm{sc}}=9.81 \mathrm{~A}\\\mathrm{~V}_{\mathrm{mp}}=18 \mathrm{~V}\\\mathrm{I}_{\mathrm{mp}}=9.17 \mathrm{~A}\\\mathrm{P}_{\max }=165 \mathrm{~W} Iraq Numerical 1000
    800
    600
    25–65 0.0815
    0.0860
    0.0750
    -0.150
    -0.163
    -0.158
    -0.155
    -0.155
    -0.142
    -0.260
    -0.260
    -0.230

     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV
    Table 4.  Comparison of linear model accuracy of present study with previous studies at 1000 W/m2.
    Reference Isc (A) Voc (V) Pmax (W)
    [36] Isc = 0.0121*Tc + 7.0092
    R2 = 0.9945
    Voc = −1.2393*Tc + 304.03
    R2 = 0.9982
    P = −0.0077*Tc + 2.44423
    R2 = 0.9934
    Present study Isc = 0.008*Tc + 9.38
    R2 = 0.9992
    Voc = −0.034*Tc + 23
    R2 = 0.9940
    P = −0.43*Tc + 180
    R2 = 0.9930

     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    The output electrical characteristics of PV module were investigated by numerical and experimental studies. In addition the temperature coefficients of PV module was analyzed numerically. Based on the analyses of the results, the following conclusions can be drawn:

    • The numerical results conclude that the maximum power was recorded 165 W at 1000 W/m2 solar irradiance and 25 ℃ PV module temperature.

    • The increasing of module temperature has critical effect on the voltage rather than the current.

    • The minimum value of power was recorded about 31 W at 200 W/m2 of solar radiation.

    • The temperature coefficient was recorded a maximum value with output power about (−0.26) %/℃. While, the temperature coefficient (𝛽) of Voc, (𝜸) of Pmax and (δ) of FF were little changed.

    • The experimental results show that the maximum power was recorded 131.2 W at 920 W/m2 solar radiation.

    This work was conducted within Middle Technical University and the authors are grateful to the staff of University for their help.

    The authors demonstrate that there is no conflict of interest regarding this manuscript.



    [1] W. Liu, D. Y. Chen, P. C. Yin, M. Y. Yang, E. Z. Li, M. Xie, et al., Small manhole cover detection in remote sensing imagery with deep convolutional neural networks, ISPRS. Int. J. Geo-Inf., 8 (2019), 913–924. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi8010049 doi: 10.3390/ijgi8010049
    [2] B. D. Zhou, W. J. Zhao, W. H. Guo, L. C. Li, D. J. Zhang, Q. Z. Mao, et al., Smartphone-based road manhole cover detection and classification, Autom. Constr., 140 (2022), 104344–104355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2022.104344 doi: 10.1016/j.autcon.2022.104344
    [3] R. Hubaut, R. Guichard, J. Greenfield, M. Blandeau, Validation of an embedded motion-capture and EMG setup for the analysis of musculoskeletal disorder risks during manhole cover handling, Sensors, 22 (2022), 436–451. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22020436 doi: 10.3390/s22020436
    [4] V. Albino, U. Berardi, R. M. Dangelico, Smart cities: Definitions, dimensions, performance, and initiatives, J. Urban Technol., 22 (2015), 3–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/10630732.2014.942092 doi: 10.1080/10630732.2014.942092
    [5] X. Y. Liu, Y. Han, Y. H. Du, IoT device identification using directional packet length sequences and 1D-CNN, Sensors, 22 (2022), 8337–8356. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22218337 doi: 10.3390/s22218337
    [6] S. Hymel, C. Banbury, D. Situnayake, A. Elium, C. Ward, M. Kelcey, et al., Edge Impulse: An MLOps platform for tiny machine learning, preprint, arXiv: 2212.03332.
    [7] H. H. Aly, A. H. Soliman, M. Mouniri, Towards a fully automated monitoring system for manhole cover: Smart cities and IOT applications, in 2015 IEEE First International Smart Cities Conference (ISC2), (2015), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1109/ISC2.2015.7366150
    [8] X. R. Fu, Manhole cover intelligent detection and management system, in 2016 6th International Conference on Electronic, Mechanical, Information and Management Society (ICEMIMS), (2016), 986–988. https://doi.org/10.2991/emim-16.2016.203
    [9] V. K. Nallamothu, S. Medidi, S. P. Jannu, IOT based manhole detection and monitoring system, in 2022 International Conference on Distributed Computing and Electrical Circuits and Electronics (ICDCECE), (2022), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICDCECE53908.2022.9793287
    [10] R. Dronavalli, K. Seelam, P. Maganti, J. Gowineni, S. D. Challamalla, IoT-based automatic manhole observant for sewage worker's safety, in 2022 International Conference on Automation, Computing and Renewable Systems (ICACRS), (2022), 310–316. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICACRS55517.2022.10029252
    [11] S. Salehin, S. S. Akter, A. Ibnat, T. T. Anannya, N. N. Liya, M. Paramita, et al., An IoT based proposed system for monitoring manhole in context of Bangladesh, in 2018 4th International Conference on Electrical Engineering and Information & Communication Technology (ICEEICT), (2018), 411–415. https://doi.org/10.1109/CEEICT.2018.8628091
    [12] C. S. Ram, C. N. Kumar, S. Abhilash, Automated street light control and manhole monitoring with fault detection & reporting system for municipal department, Int. J. Sci. Res. Eng. Man, 7 (2023), 9–15. https://doi.org/10.55041/IJSREM.17962 doi: 10.55041/IJSREM.17962
    [13] S. K. Muragesh, R. Santhosha, Automated internet of things for underground drainage and manhole monitoring system for metropolitan cities, Int. J. Inf. Comput. Technol., 4 (2014), 1211–1220. https://doi.org/10.0974/IJICT.15634 doi: 10.0974/IJICT.15634
    [14] Y. Liu, M. Y. Du, C. F. Jing, Y. Bai, Design of supervision and management system for ownerless manhole covers based on RFID, in 2013 21st International Conference on Geoinformatics (ICG), (2013), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1109/Geoinformatics.2013.6626149
    [15] G. Y. Jia, G. J. Han, H. L. Rao, L. Shu, Edge computing-based intelligent manhole cover management system for smart cities, IEEE Internet Things, 5 (2018), 1648–1656. https://doi.org/10.1109/JIOT.2017.2786349 doi: 10.1109/JIOT.2017.2786349
    [16] A. Mankotia, A. K. Shukla, IOT based manhole detection and monitoring system using Arduino, Mater. Today: Proc., 57 (2022), 2195–2198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.12.264 doi: 10.1016/j.matpr.2021.12.264
    [17] N. Nataraja, R. Amruthavarshini, N. L. Chaitra, K. Jyothi, N. Krupaa, S. S. M. Saqquaf, Secure manhole monitoring system employing sensors and GSM techniques, in 2018 3rd IEEE International Conference on Recent Trends in Electronics, Information & Communication Technology (RTEICT), (2018), 2078–2082. https://doi.org/10.1109/RTEICT42901.2018.9012245
    [18] X. C. Guo, B. B. Liu, L. L. Wang, Design and implementation of intelligent manhole cover monitoring system based on NB-IoT, in 2019 International Conference on Robots & Intelligent System (ICRIS), (2019), 207–210. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICRIS.2019.00061
    [19] J. P. Zhang, X. L. Zeng, Design of intelligent manhole cover monitoring system based on narrow band internet of things, in 2022 7th International Conference on Intelligent Computing and Signal Processing (ICSP), (2022), 1354–1357. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICSP54964.2022.9778462
    [20] W. Sun, Design and realization of LoRa-based manhole cover safety monitoring system, J. Int. Things Technol., 9 (2019), 25–26, 30. https://doi.org/10.16667/j.issn.2095-1302.2019.04.005 doi: 10.16667/j.issn.2095-1302.2019.04.005
    [21] H. S. Zhang, L. Li, X. Liu, Development and test of manhole cover monitoring device using LoRa and accelerometer, IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., 69 (2020), 2570–2580. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIM.2020.2967854 doi: 10.1109/TIM.2020.2967854
    [22] X. Liu, H. S. Zhang, L. Li, Research on LoRa communication performance in manhole cover monitoring, in 2019 IEEE International Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference (I2MTC), (2019), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/I2MTC.2019.8826898
    [23] L. Li, H. S. Zhang, X. Liu, Development of low power consumption manhole cover monitoring device using LoRa, in 2019 IEEE International Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference (I2MTC), (2019), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/I2MTC.2019.8826885
    [24] Y. Yu, J. Li, H. Guan, C. Wang, Automated detection of road manhole covers from mobile LiDAR point-clouds based on a marked point process, in 2013 Fifth International Conference on Geo-Information Technologies for Natural Disaster Management (ICGITNDM), (2013), 130–136. https://doi.org/10.1109/GIT4NDM.2013.23
    [25] Z. Y. Wei, M. M. Yang, L. Z. Wang, H. Ma, X. X. Chen, R. F. Zhong, Customized mobile LiDAR system for manhole cover detection and identification, Sensors, 19 (2019), 2422–2439. https://doi.org/10.3390/s19102422 doi: 10.3390/s19102422
    [26] V. Vishnani, A. Adhya, C. Bajpai, P. Chimurkar, K. Khandagle, Manhole detection using image processing on google street view imagery, in 2020 Third International Conference on Smart Systems and Inventive Technology (ICSSIT), (2020), 684–688. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICSSIT48917.2020.9214219
    [27] U. Andrijašević, J. Kocić, V. Nešić, Lid opening detection in manholes using RNN, in 2020 28th Telecommunications Forum (TELFOR), (2020), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1109/TELFOR51502.2020.9306668
    [28] R. Krishnan, A. Santhana, D. D. Kumari, N. Nandhini, G. Karpagarajesh, K. Narayanan, et al., A secured manhole management system using IoT and machine learning, Rec. Adv. Int. Things Mach. Learn., 215 (2022), 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-90119-6_3 doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-90119-6_3
    [29] D. P. Zhang, X. C. Yu, L. Yang, D. Y. Quan, H. M. Mi, K. Yan, Data-augmented deep learning models for abnormal road manhole cover detection, Sensors, 23 (2023), 2676–2693. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23052676 doi: 10.3390/s23052676
    [30] K. Thakur, A. Adhya, C. Bajpai, P. Chimurkar, P. Kasambe, Manhole management using image processing and data analytics, in 2021 12th International Conference on Computing Communication and Networking Technologies (ICCCNT), 12 (2021), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICCCNT51525.2021.9579541
    [31] W. S. Shi, J. Cao, Q. Zhang, Y. H. Z. Li, L. Y. Xu, Edge computing: Vision and challenges, IEEE Internet Things, 3 (2016), 637–646. https://doi.org/10.1109/JIOT.2016.2579198 doi: 10.1109/JIOT.2016.2579198
    [32] F. Mo, L. Yu, Z. K. Zhang, Y. Zhao, Design and implementation of manhole cover safety monitoring system based on smart light pole, Math. Probl. Eng., 2022 (2022), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/3081649 doi: 10.1155/2022/3081649
    [33] B. Ravelo, M. Guerin, W. Rahajandraibe, V. Gies, L. Rajaoarisoa, S. Lalléchère, Low-pass NGD numerical function and STM32 MCU emulation test, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., 8 (2022), 8346–8355. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIE.2021.3109543 doi: 10.1109/TIE.2021.3109543
    [34] V. B. Vales, O. C. Fernández, T. D. Bolaño, C. J. Escudero, J. A. G. Naya, Fine time measurement for the internet of things: a practical approach using ESP32, IEEE Internet Things, 19 (2022), 18305–18318. https://doi.org/10.1109/JIOT.2022.3158701 doi: 10.1109/JIOT.2022.3158701
    [35] W. S. Shi, X. Z. Zhang, Y. F. Wang, Q. Y. Zhang, Edge computing: Status and prospects, J. Comput. Res. Dev., 56 (2019), 69–89. https://doi.org/10.7544/issn1000-1239.2019.20180760 doi: 10.7544/issn1000-1239.2019.20180760
    [36] W. S. Shi, H. Sun, J. Cao, Q. Zhang, W. Liu, Edge computing: A new computing model for the internet of everything era, J. Comput. Res. Dev., 54 (2017), 907–924. https://doi.org/10.7544/issn1000-1239.2017.20160941 doi: 10.7544/issn1000-1239.2017.20160941
    [37] Y. F. Li, X. R. He, Y. Z. Bian, Task offloading of edge computing network and energy saving of passive house for smart city, Mob. Inf. Syst., 2022 (2022), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/4832240 doi: 10.1155/2022/4832240
    [38] B. Pang, E. Nijkamp, Y. N. Wu, Deep learning with TensorFlow: A review, J. Educ. Behav. Stat., 2 (2020), 227–248. https://doi.org/10.3102/1076998619872761 doi: 10.3102/1076998619872761
    [39] I. N. Mihigo, M. Zennaro, A. Uwitonze, J. Rwigema, M. Rovai, On-Device IoT-based predictive maintenance analytics model: Comparing TinyLSTM and TinyModel from edge impulse, Sensors, 22 (2022), 5174–5194. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22145174 doi: 10.3390/s22145174
    [40] L. Qing, K. Yang, W. Tan, J. Li, Automated detection of manhole covers in Mls point clouds using a deep learning approach, in IGARSS 2020-2020 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, (2020), 1580–1583. https://doi.org/10.1109/IGARSS39084.2020.9324137
    [41] S. J. Tian, S. Wang, H. R. Xu, Early detection of freezing damage in oranges by online Vis/NIR computers and electronics in agriculture transmission coupled with diameter correction method and deep 1D-CNN, Comput. Electr. Agric., 193 (2022), 106638–106659. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2021.106638 doi: 10.1016/j.compag.2021.106638
    [42] C. C. Che, H. W. Wang, X. M. Ni, R. G. Ning, M. L. Xiong, Remaining life prediction of aero-engine based on 1D-CNN and Bi-LSTM, J. Mech. Eng., 57 (2021), 304–312. https://doi.org/10.3901/JME.2021.14.304 doi: 10.3901/JME.2021.14.304
    [43] Y. Kim, Convolutional neural networks for sentence classification, preprint, arXiv: 1408.5882.
    [44] H. J. Wang, Z. Y. Yi, Z. Z. Ke, Y. J. Guo, H. Y. Dong, Wear monitoring of spiral milling tools based on one-dimensional convolutional neural network, J. Zhejiang Univ. (Eng. Ed.), 54 (2020), 931–939. https://doi.org/10.3785/j.issn.1008-973X.2020.05.010 doi: 10.3785/j.issn.1008-973X.2020.05.010
    [45] L. Liu, J. C. Zhu, G. J. Han, Y. G. Bi, Bearing health monitoring and fault diagnosis based on joint feature extraction in one-dimensional convolution neural network, J. Soft., 32 (2021), 2379−2390. https://doi.org/10.13328/j.cnki.jos.006188 doi: 10.13328/j.cnki.jos.006188
    [46] H. T. Ren, F. Deng, Manhole cover detection using depth information, J. Phys.: Conf. Ser., 1856 (2021), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1856/1/012037 doi: 10.1088/1742-6596/1856/1/012037
    [47] W. M. Rasheed, R. Abdulla, L. Y. San, Manhole cover monitoring system over IOT, J. Appl. Technol. Innov., 5 (2021), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.2600/JATI.245739682 doi: 10.2600/JATI.245739682
    [48] S. Bouhoula, M. Avgeris, A. Leivadeas, I. Lambadaris, Computational offloading for the industrial internet of things: A performance analysis, in 2022 IEEE International Mediterranean Conference on Communications and Networking (MeditCom), (2022), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/MeditCom55741.2022.9928770
  • This article has been cited by:

    1. Guorong Li, Yunpeng Zhang, Hai Zhou, Ji Wu, Shumin Sun, Daning You, Yuanpeng Zhang, Novel reference condition independent method for estimating performance for PV modules based on double-diode model, 2024, 226, 09601481, 120388, 10.1016/j.renene.2024.120388
    2. Mebarek LAHBIB, Mohammed BOUSSAID, Houcine MOUNGAR, Ahmed TAHRI, Analytical assessment of the filed results on the PV system connectors performance under operating temperature, 2023, 11, 2333-8334, 555, 10.3934/energy.2023029
    3. Nabeel S. Dhaidan, Wisam A.M. Al-Shohani, Hawraa H. Abbas, Farhan Lafta Rashid, Arman Ameen, Fadhel N. Al-Mousawi, Raad Z. Homod, Enhancing the thermal performance of an agricultural solar greenhouse by geothermal energy using an earth-air heat exchanger system: A review, 2024, 123, 03756505, 103115, 10.1016/j.geothermics.2024.103115
    4. Abdelhak Keddouda, Razika Ihaddadene, Ali Boukhari, Abdelmalek Atia, Müslüm Arıcı, Nacer Lebbihiat, Nabila Ihaddadene, Photovoltaic module temperature prediction using various machine learning algorithms: Performance evaluation, 2024, 363, 03062619, 123064, 10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.123064
    5. Yuwaldi Away, Ira Dewi Sara, , 2023, The Effect of Adding a Heatsink as a Coolant to Increasing Output Power at Solar Panels, 979-8-3503-8552-6, 111, 10.1109/ELTICOM61905.2023.10443116
  • Reader Comments
  • © 2023 the Author(s), licensee AIMS Press. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)
通讯作者: 陈斌, bchen63@163.com
  • 1. 

    沈阳化工大学材料科学与工程学院 沈阳 110142

  1. 本站搜索
  2. 百度学术搜索
  3. 万方数据库搜索
  4. CNKI搜索

Metrics

Article views(2251) PDF downloads(155) Cited by(3)

Figures and Tables

Figures(25)  /  Tables(3)

Other Articles By Authors

/

DownLoad:  Full-Size Img  PowerPoint
Return
Return

Catalog