Review Topical Sections

Cutting-edge progress in offshore wind and tidal stream power technology—State-of-the-Art

  • The growing global demand for clean and sustainable energy has underscored the critical importance of offshore wind and tidal stream power technologies in addressing energy and environmental challenges. While these technologies hold significant potential to harness marine energy resources, gaps remain in understanding their readiness levels, integration potential, and pathways to overcome existing barriers. This study aims to bridge these gaps by providing a comprehensive review of the latest advancements in offshore wind and tidal stream power systems, focusing on innovations in turbine design, materials, and hybrid systems that combine wind and tidal energy. The methodology involves an extensive review and synthesis of recent research, project reports, and industry developments to evaluate the current technological state, challenges, and opportunities. Key findings include notable progress in turbine efficiency and hybrid system integration, which collectively improve energy conversion efficiency, scalability, and reliability. However, the study identifies persistent barriers such as high costs, environmental impact, and competition with more established renewable energy sources like solar and onshore wind. This paper emphasizes the importance of hybrid systems as a transformative approach to maximizing marine resource utilization and enhancing energy supply stability. The findings have significant implications for guiding future research, fostering innovation, and informing investment strategies in the marine renewable energy sector.

    Citation: Ladislas Mutunda Kangaji, Atanda Raji, Efe Orumwense. Cutting-edge progress in offshore wind and tidal stream power technology—State-of-the-Art[J]. AIMS Energy, 2025, 13(1): 188-230. doi: 10.3934/energy.2025007

    Related Papers:

    [1] Danilo T. Pérez-Rivera, Verónica L. Torres-Torres, Abraham E. Torres-Colón, Mayteé Cruz-Aponte . Development of a computational model of glucose toxicity in the progression of diabetes mellitus. Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering, 2016, 13(5): 1043-1058. doi: 10.3934/mbe.2016029
    [2] Kimberly Fessel, Jeffrey B. Gaither, Julie K. Bower, Trudy Gaillard, Kwame Osei, Grzegorz A. Rempała . Mathematical analysis of a model for glucose regulation. Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering, 2016, 13(1): 83-99. doi: 10.3934/mbe.2016.13.83
    [3] Lela Dorel . Glucose level regulation via integral high-order sliding modes. Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering, 2011, 8(2): 549-560. doi: 10.3934/mbe.2011.8.549
    [4] Huazhong Yang, Wang Li, Maojin Tian, Yangfeng Ren . A personalized multitasking framework for real-time prediction of blood glucose levels in type 1 diabetes patients. Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering, 2024, 21(2): 2515-2541. doi: 10.3934/mbe.2024111
    [5] Delong Cui, Hong Huang, Zhiping Peng, Qirui Li, Jieguang He, Jinbo Qiu, Xinlong Luo, Jiangtao Ou, Chengyuan Fan . Next-generation 5G fusion-based intelligent health-monitoring platform for ethylene cracking furnace tube. Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering, 2022, 19(9): 9168-9199. doi: 10.3934/mbe.2022426
    [6] Yu-Mei Han, Hui Yang, Qin-Lai Huang, Zi-Jie Sun, Ming-Liang Li, Jing-Bo Zhang, Ke-Jun Deng, Shuo Chen, Hao Lin . Risk prediction of diabetes and pre-diabetes based on physical examination data. Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering, 2022, 19(4): 3597-3608. doi: 10.3934/mbe.2022166
    [7] Mengfan Liu, Runkai Jiao, Qing Nian . Training method and system for stress management and mental health care of managers based on deep learning. Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering, 2022, 19(1): 371-393. doi: 10.3934/mbe.2022019
    [8] Anarina L. Murillo, Jiaxu Li, Carlos Castillo-Chavez . Modeling the dynamics of glucose, insulin, and free fatty acids with time delay: The impact of bariatric surgery on type 2 diabetes mellitus. Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering, 2019, 16(5): 5765-5787. doi: 10.3934/mbe.2019288
    [9] Micaela Morettini, Christian Göbl, Alexandra Kautzky-Willer, Giovanni Pacini, Andrea Tura, Laura Burattini . Former gestational diabetes: Mathematical modeling of intravenous glucose tolerance test for the assessment of insulin clearance and its determinants. Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering, 2020, 17(2): 1604-1615. doi: 10.3934/mbe.2020084
    [10] Ying Zhu, Lipeng Guo, Jixin Zou, Liwen Wang, He Dong, Shengbo Yu, Lijun Zhang, Jun Li, Xueling Qu . JQ1 inhibits high glucose-induced migration of retinal microglial cells by regulating the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering, 2022, 19(12): 13079-13092. doi: 10.3934/mbe.2022611
  • The growing global demand for clean and sustainable energy has underscored the critical importance of offshore wind and tidal stream power technologies in addressing energy and environmental challenges. While these technologies hold significant potential to harness marine energy resources, gaps remain in understanding their readiness levels, integration potential, and pathways to overcome existing barriers. This study aims to bridge these gaps by providing a comprehensive review of the latest advancements in offshore wind and tidal stream power systems, focusing on innovations in turbine design, materials, and hybrid systems that combine wind and tidal energy. The methodology involves an extensive review and synthesis of recent research, project reports, and industry developments to evaluate the current technological state, challenges, and opportunities. Key findings include notable progress in turbine efficiency and hybrid system integration, which collectively improve energy conversion efficiency, scalability, and reliability. However, the study identifies persistent barriers such as high costs, environmental impact, and competition with more established renewable energy sources like solar and onshore wind. This paper emphasizes the importance of hybrid systems as a transformative approach to maximizing marine resource utilization and enhancing energy supply stability. The findings have significant implications for guiding future research, fostering innovation, and informing investment strategies in the marine renewable energy sector.



    Type 2 diabetes mellitus is one of the most prevalent, multifactorial chronic diseases with a high rate of disability and mortality, which badly demands lifelong cost-efficient personalised management [1,2]. Blood glucose control is essential to postpone disease progression and alleviate symptoms [3,4].

    RT-CGM (Real-time continuous glucose monitor), a portable subcutaneous interstitial glucose detector, enables long-term glucose control for its benefits in less puncture and more holistic pictures of blood glucose [5]. However, this CGM system limits its leverage due to its gap in glucose prediction [6], which can be filled by glucose trajectory prediction, such as deep learning tools. In this way, people can take action beforehand to eliminate imminent events, such as hyperglycaemic crisis and hypoglycaemic coma [7,8].

    LSTM-RNN (long short-term memory - recursive neural network), the deep learning model fitting long sequence data such as continuous glucose [9], has the potential competence to provide a more accurate glucose trajectory prediction [10]. Previously, Sadegh Mirshekarian et al. presented an RNN approach with LSTM units to learn a physiological model of blood glucose [11]. And Mario Munoz-Organero also proposed, implemented, validated and compared a new hybrid deep learning model to mimic the metabolic behaviour of physiological blood glucose methods [12]. These studies indicated that deep learning contained the power to predict health-related parameters. Besides, the differential equations for carbohydrate and insulin absorption in physiological models were also modelled using LSTM cells. Rabby et al. proposed a novel approach to predict blood glucose levels with a stacked LSTM based on a deep RNN model considering sensor fault [13]. Based on these studies, we believe that LSTM-RNN would improve glucose prediction in diabetic patients with a stronger prediction power.

    Although the precise prediction of glucose among patients suffering from type 2 diabetes is necessary and many researchers have verified the accuracy of deep learning models [14], only limited studies have tested the detailed effects of these potentially burden-free, deep-learning-involved care in the community [15]. Besides, only a few studies paid attention to the ethnoracial disparity, not to mention the inter-personal variation of glucose management with the deep-learning models [16]. Furthermore, scarce studies cared for the mental conditions of patients who utilise these deep learning-based health management models. Hence, we would like to explore whether this personally developed deep-learning model supported glucose management would improve the health of type 2 diabetes, both physically and mentally.

    In this study, we would apply a personalized glucose prediction model to test the merits of the deep learning-assisted personalised health management pattern, aimed to support the management strategies for type 2 diabetic patients in the community. Firstly, we represented the development of individual deep learning models for blood glucose trajectory prediction. Then we exhibited a participant receiving personalised diabetes self-management in a real-world scenario who finally showed well-controlled blood glucose data despite increased stress.

    A 42-year man (the Han Chinese; living at home) with a history of type 2 diabetes for four years expressed interest in our management strategy in a review at Tianjin Medical University Metabolic Diseases Hospital. His body mass index (BMI) was 26.23 kg/m2. With fasting blood glucose (FBG) of 8.2 mmol/L and glycosylated haemoglobin (HbA1c) of 9.2 × 10-2 mmol/mol (8.4%), he was treated with Metformin 0.5 g three times a day. There was no history of diabetic retinopathy, neuropathy, carcinoma or any other comorbidities except a history of mild depression for four years. He was a non-smoker, and he seldom drank alcohol. His diabetes management aimed to control fasting glucose from 4.4 mmol/L to 7.0 mmol/L. With a clear consciousness and independent ability in daily life, the person agreed to participate and signed the consent for engagement and publication. In addition, the medical jargon was explained in the supplement file.

    In this paradigm (Figure 1(a)), the person was armed with RT-CGM (FreeStyle® Libre, Abbott Diabetes Care Ltd.) and instructed to submit relevant data each day (for adjustment, Sec 0, day0–day3). The predicted trajectory by the personalised deep learning model, which was transferred from general glucose models, was not returned (for monitoring, Sec 1, day4–day8) until the ninth day, following the model application (Sec 2, day9–day13) and regular follow-up.

    Figure 1.  Overview of deep learning customised self-management. (a) The architecture of individual LSTM-RNN (Long short-term memory recurrent neural network) models [9] facilitated self-management. The participant recorded and submitted real-world data such as food intake, physical activity, and continuous glucose, followed by glucose prediction and feedback by individual models for on-time application. Individual LSTM-RNN models were transferred (Tran) from naïve models, the top three models in ten replications with the best performance. Then, they were fine-tuned (Tune) and progressed (Prog) by personal CGM (continuous glucose monitor) data. The naïve models processed entire glucose sequence (length n) in steps, in which networks predicted appendix 2-hour glucose through 30-min triplicate recurrences by optimised weights through memory data (ct-1) and input data (xt), filtered by gates. Each prediction was made on the top model in Prog and Appl sections and tested in triplicate. (b) Model performance during individual model progression. RMSE (Root mean standard error) was compared between real-time CGM data and predicted glucose data (Model_Prediction, in which Glucose data were predicted in 30-min recurrence, green), and simulated application of appendix 2-hour glucose data generated through 30-min recurrence (Model_Application, blue).

    The individual LSTM-RNN model was transferred from naïve LSTM-RNN models (Prem) and developed from personal RT-CGM data. Naïve LSTM-RNN models were created and evaluated with 16 cases of CGM data (17,182 sets of glucose data) from the CGM system, whose interval was about 15 minutes. We chose three top models (Model a-c in Figure 1(a)) from ten replications of naïve models in case of the disparate features between cases in the naïve model development and the person applied the personalised prediction model. While in the following progressing and prediction sections, only the top model was employed to acquire personalised super-parameters, even though we tripled each forecast to assess the stability of the models. In these prediction models, the independent variables were a sequence of glucose obtained from CGM data, and the dependent variables were the glucose trajectory in the ensuing two hours. The core of the prediction models was iterated by Adam gradient optimization [17,18] and assessed by RMSE [19].

    Personalised models were transferred (Tran) and fine-tuned (Tune) from naïve models by RT-CGM data in the adjustment section (Sec 0). And the individual LSTM-RNN models were progressed (Prog) during the monitoring section (Sec 1). Then the appendix 2-hour prediction was applied (Appl) on time for the 3rd section by three individual LSTM-RNN models.

    Since blood glucose is commonly acknowledged in the short-term management of diabetic patients, some glucose-related parameters were chosen, including average glucose, daily hyperglycaemic time, daily time of high glucose and high blood glucose index [10,20]. Besides, fasting glucose, glycosylated haemoglobin, and BMI were used to contrast the lasting efficacy of this interference. Moreover, we also inspected psychological disturbance by the PAID (the Problem Area in Diabetes) scale, a reliable psychometric examiner for diabetes-related emotional distress [21]. Further description of the parameters used above was in the supplement file.

    RMSE (Root Mean Square Error) was calculated to evaluate the model accuracy. The student's T test was applied for continuous data with Gaussian distribution (mean ± SEM), and the chi-square test was used for those non-Gaussian distribution data. As for the individual application results, data were reported directly for scarce cases.

    The fine-tuned models had an average RMSE of 0.99 mmol/L for glucose prediction. And the simulation of on-time application was followed with an average RMSE of 0.98 mmol/L. The progressed models had a lower average RMSE (0.75 mmol/L) in on-time simulation.

    Compared with before application (Sec 1), the daily average glucose of this participant was decreased with the incorporation of a personalised self-management strategy in daily glucose level (Sec 2) (8.68 mmol/L ± 0.24 mmol/L to 8.02 mmol/L ± 0.11 mmol/L, mean ± SEM, P < 0.05), especially at night monitoring during 18:00 to 6:00 the next day (8.99 mmol/L ± 0.34 mmol/L to 7.65 mmol/L ± 0.13 mmol/L, mean ± SEM, P < 0.01). The measurements are exhibited in Figure 2(a, b). Mean of daily difference tended to be lower (from 0.15 mmol/L ± 0.66 mmol/L to 0.05 mmol/L ± 0.35 mmol/L). Time in the target range (3.9 mmol/L to 10.0 mmol/L) increased from 19.40 hours to 21.70 hours per day, along with less high glucose (Alert, CGM in a range of 10.0 mmol/L to 13.9 mmol/L, 1.70 hours per day; Clinically significant 0.55 hour per day). The hyperglycaemic risk was alleviated for high blood glucose index (HBGI) has dropped from 12.99 × 102 to 9.17 × 102, with a mild decrease in glucose variation (standard deviation, from 1.81 mmol/L to 1.59 mmol/L). The measured results are shown in Figure 2(ce).

    Figure 2.  Efficacy of deep learning aided self-management. (a–e) Data obtained from the real-time CGM (continuous glucose monitoring) system were compared between the 2nd section (Sec 1, day4–day8) and the 3rd section (Sec 2, day9–day13). (a, b) Average blood glucose. Average blood glucose dropped significantly daily and at night (18 o'clock to 6 o'clock the next day). (c) Average hyperglycaemic volume, high glucose multiplied by time (hours), representing clinical risk, alert (CGM data > 10.0 mmol/L, CGM data < 13.9 mmol/L) and clinically significant (CGM data ≥ 13.9 mmol/L) [10]. (d) High glucose time, the time (hours) of glucose higher than specific levels. (e) High blood glucose index, reflecting the risk of hyperglycaemia [22]. (f–h) Changes between baseline and 3-month follow-up. (f) Glycated haemoglobin. (g) Fasting blood glucose. (h) Body mass index. Asterisk mark (* and **) represents significance (Wilcox's test) P < 0.05 and P < 0.01 separately.

    Furthermore, the follow-up questionnaire in 3 months displayed a dropped BMI (24.69 kg/m2), less energy intake, more physical exercise, and better sleep. Besides, the participant had a lower FBG (6.7 mmol/L) and HbA1c 7.9 × 10-2 mol/mol, with a regimen of Trajenta 5.0 mg in the morning and Metformin 1.0 g at night. The measurements are shown in Figure 2(fh) and Table 1. More diabetes-associated distress was revealed by PAID scale, with a total increase of 6.25%, especially in the diet facet (sense of dietary deprivation), attributing to more than half of the rise. Others were related to social support (less safety) and emotion, like loneliness and depression (Table 2).

    Table 1.  The participant's physical status between the baseline and 3-month follow-up.
    Physical status Baseline Follow-up
    BMI (kg/m2) 26.23 24.69
    FBG (mmol/L) 8.2 6.7
    HbA1c (mol/mol) 9.2 × 10-2 7.9 × 10-2

     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV
    Table 2.  Diabetes-associated stress between the baseline and 3-month follow-up.
    PAID (%) Baseline Follow-up
    Emotional 26.25 27.50
    Therapeutic 12.50 12.50
    Dietary 18.75 22.50
    Social supporting 15.00 16.25
    total 72.50 78.75
    Note: Diabetes-associated distress data assessed by PAID scale (Problem Areas In Diabetes) were compared between baseline and follow-up in three months [21].

     | Show Table
    DownLoad: CSV

    Efficient and economical life-long glucose control is vital for people with diabetes in the community. This case depicts the construction of personalised deep learning models for on-time application. It suggests that deep learning customised glucose prediction may be a potential remedy for the CGM system in glucose forecast for life-long health management. And the application of the predicted system also requires the proper support from health care providers.

    Personalised deep learning models are a potential supplement to CGM with kind of accuracy (Figure 2(b, c)). The individual may avoid abnormal hyperglycaemia glucose actively by more physical activity and less food intake, learning how to control his glucose appropriately. Moreover, the significant decrease of glucose (Figure 2(ae)) and the mild change of glucose variation crossing two segments, along with the average daily RMSE (1.59 mmol/L) in the application segment, also support the applicability of deep learning in glucose prediction as insertion of the CGM system. However, the specific role of deep learning customised diabetes control still needs more cases engaged.

    Deep learning customised glucose prediction can be more accurate with more data and advanced artificial intelligence techniques. Customised models built from 16 instances of CGM data and personal historical CGM data had a limited performance in this case. Considering the data reliance on prediction models, we believe that with more training data, multiple information involved in the era of big data and cutting-edge artificial intelligence techniques [23,24,25], the accuracy of deep prediction models will be higher, accomplishing individual healthcare step-by-step [26].

    Deep learning customised glucose prediction with a CGM system may be a feasible personalised self-management strategy in the community. The participant has experienced a promising change in glucose after two sessions, which was sustained and with a lower BMI in 3 months, together with more physical activity and less food intake (Figure 2(fh)). Besides, due to the limited accessibility of caregivers, the deep learning prediction provides optional guidance on how to act before the occurrence of abnormal glucose and to alleviate burdens in labour and economics.

    Despite the promising results of this strategy mentioned above, attention must be paid to aspects such as stress. The participant suffered more stress both during the monitoring fortnight and 3-month follow-up. Researches indicate that the intervention efforts of diabetes stress were helpful in the comprehensive diabetes care, contributing to behaviour changes [27], elevated diabetes-associated stress might barricade the responsibility to beneficial intervention [28], and may increase depression burden [29]. The prolonged impact on glucose and behaviours, together with the condition of his mental health and stress, requires support from peers and healthcare providers [30,31]. Moreover, this strategy also demands a regular follow-up. Increasing the size of the participant samples, will help reinforce the certainty of the results., the one tailored for the personalised management of diabetes. Therefore, we would incorporate more patients to further research. We believe that more participants involved in more strictly designed clinical trials integrated with deep learning prediction would improve the outcome of patients with diabetes and march on the development of health management.

    In summary, deep learning customised glucose prediction may be accessible to personalised health care in the long-term management of type 2 diabetes, for example, by aiding in the CGM system. This would be beneficial for people suffering from this chronic disease, since a promising outcome (i.e., a decrease of glucose into a safer range, as shown above) might also occur on them using this care pattern, though more cases should be involved to test the validity of this caring pattern and more clinical settings should also be tested. Furthermore, the diabetes stress should be emphasized too, which seems to require a periodical care from the healthcare providers and the family members of patients.

    We thank the support from the China Postdoctoral International Exchange Program Academic Exchange Project, Science and Technology Program of Tianjin (18ZXZNSY00280) and the Tianjin Medical University college student Innovation training program.

    The participant has no conflicts of interest to disclose. Written informed consent was obtained from the participant for collecting his real-world data and publication. The funders did not participate in the designing, data gathering and analysing, publicising, or preparing of the manuscript. Abbott Diabetes Care supported the CGM data, discounted continuous glucose monitoring system (device and sensor), and equipment guidance and real-time communication.

    Except for general clinical glucose metrics like fasting glucose and glycosylated haemoglobin, body mass index was also applied to contrast the lasting efficacy of the intelligence-assisted health management.

    Furthermore, continuous glucose parameters were included to evaluate the short-dated efficacy of glucose management, such as average glucose, daily hyperglycaemic time, daily time of high glucose and high blood glucose index.

    Average glucose: the arithmetic average of glucose.

    SD, standard deviation, evaluating the glucose variation.

    Daily time of high glucose: the total time of glucose above range each day.

    daily hyperglycaemic time: glucose multiplied by the time of glucose above range each day. The glucose above range were sectioned by clinical risk, alert (CGM data > 10.0 mmol/l, CGM data < 13.9 mmol/l) and clinically significant (CGM data ≥ 13.9 mmol/l).

    High blood glucose index: a metric reflecting the risk of hyperglycaemia, calculated by functions below.

    HBGI=22.77f(xi)2n, f(xi)=ln(xi)1.0845.381,iff(xi)0 for glucose readings x1, …, xn measured in mg/dl.

    MODD, the mean of daily differences, evaluating intraday variability from all 24h intervals2.

    Deep learning has leapt into the public view since the triumph of AlphaGo and got unceasing victories from diabetic retinopathy identification, medical events or outcomes prediction, and health care opmisation. The recurrent neural network (RNN), designed to sequence data, is powerful for long sequences after the incorporation of Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM), the one proposed to solve the "long-term dependencies" problem. We then described the LSTM-RNN models to predict glucose trajectories for diabetes management.

    Continuous glucose data by CGM (continuous glucose monitor) system (FreeStyle® Libre, Abbott Diabetes Care Ltd.) from December 2014 to September 2017 were collected from16 cases (up to 15 days per case). These data were arranged as daily glucose from 0 to 24 O'clock, at an interval of about 15 mins. Missing values were imputed by the likelihood StructTS method on the R 3.4 platform.

    Real-time monitoring data of this participant were obtained from CGM system (FreeStyle® Libre, Abbott Diabetes Care Ltd.) in September 2017. Fortnight average glucose from CGM was 8.9 mmol/L (160 mg/dL), with an estimated haemoglobin of 7.2% (55 mmol/mol). The distribution of glucose was 0 in Very Low, 0 in Low Alert, 77.0% in Target Range, 18.2% High Alert, and 4.8% in Very High4. About 23% of the glucose points were above the normal range. The utilisation rate of the CGM system was 99%, with an average of 53 times scans a day. No insulin was used during the two-weeks monitoring, which was assured by the assignment.

    Model architecture referred to previous works. Input and output layers were 1-dimensional glucose data, and prediction of appendix 2-hour glucose by recurrence was iterated by Adam gradient optimization. The formula of naïve LSTM-RNN models was composed here where input gate, forget gate, and output gate were sigmoid function, while those of input and output block were hyperbolic tangent functions. The CGM data set was divided into two groups for the construction of naïve models (Prem), in which 14,878 (13 cases) in 17,182 data were put in the training set in python 3.6.

    Block input: zt=tanh(Wz[Rt1,xt]+bz)

    Input gate: it=σ(Wi[Rt1,xt]+bi)

    Forget gate: ft=σ(Wf[Rt1,xt]+bf)

    Cell: ct=ztit+ct1ft

    Output gate: ot=σ(Wo[Rt1,xt]+bo)

    Block output: yt=tanh(ct)ot

    Rt=yt

    Transferring model (Tran): Ⅰ, load three best models; train three days, test 1 day, chose superparameters with the best RMSE.

    Fine-tuned model (Tune): Ⅱ, super-parameters fine-tuned based on those output from Ⅰ, and each selected 3 top models with ten replications; train three days, test 1 day, chose superparameters with the best RMSE.

    Progressing model (Prog): Ⅲ, super-parameters fine-tuned based on the top model from Ⅱ, though each prediction was tested in triplicate to assess the accuracy. Each one was re-built for three times; train seven days, test 1day (all past personalised data).

    On-time application (Appl): Ⅴ, super-parameters fine-tuned based on the top models from Ⅲ, though each prediction was tested in triplicate to assess the accuracy; train N-1 days (all past personalised data), test for 2-hour trajectory.



    [1] Rautenbach C, Barnes MA, de Vos M (2019) Tidal characteristics of South Africa. Deep Sea Res Part I: Oceanogr Res Pap 150: 103079. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2019.103079 doi: 10.1016/j.dsr.2019.103079
    [2] Verma J, Kumar D (2021) Recent developments in energy storage systems for marine environment. Mater Adv 2: 6800–6815. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1MA00746G doi: 10.1039/D1MA00746G
    [3] Nasab NM, Kilby J, Bakhtiaryfard L (2022) Integration of wind and tidal turbines using spar buoy floating foundations. 10: 1165–1189. https://doi.org/10.3934/energy.2022055
    [4] Melikoglu M (2017) Current status and future of ocean energy sources : A global review. Ocean Eng 148: 563–573. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2017.11.045 doi: 10.1016/j.oceaneng.2017.11.045
    [5] Khan N, Kalair A, Abas N, et al. (2017) Review of ocean tidal, wave and thermal energy technologies. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 72: 590–604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.01.079 doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2017.01.079
    [6] Rehman S, Alhems LM, Alam M, et al. (2022) A review of energy extraction from wind and ocean : Technologies, merits, efficiencies, and cost. Ocean Eng 267: 113192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2022.113192 doi: 10.1016/j.oceaneng.2022.113192
    [7] Mtukushe NF, Ojo EE (2021) The study of electrical power generation from tidal energy in South Africa. 2021 South. African Univ. Power Eng. Conf. Mechatronics/Pattern Recognit. Assoc. South Africa, SAUPEC/RobMech/PRASA 2021, 7–12. https://doi.org/10.1109/SAUPEC/RobMech/PRASA52254.2021.9377011
    [8] Akinbami OM, Oke SR, Bodunrin MO (2021) The state of renewable energy development in South Africa: An overview. Alexandria Eng J 60: 5077–5093. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2021.03.065 doi: 10.1016/j.aej.2021.03.065
    [9] Tarafdar S, Abroshan M, Mirsalim M, et al. (2013) Permanent magnet linear synchronous generator for an oscillating hydrofoil in a tidal current regime. Int J Eng Technol 5: 231–236. https://doi.org/10.7763/IJET.2013.V5.549 doi: 10.7763/IJET.2013.V5.549
    [10] Khooban MH, Gheisarnejad M (2020) Islanded microgrid frequency regulations concerning the integration of tidal power units: Real-Time implementation. IEEE Trans Circuits Syst Ⅱ Express Briefs 67: 1099–1103. https://doi.org/10.1109/TCSⅡ.2019.2928838 doi: 10.1109/TCSⅡ.2019.2928838
    [11] Ranjan T, Thanthirige M, Goggins J, et al. (2023) A state-of-the-art review of structural testing of tidal turbine blades. Energies 16: 4061. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16104061 doi: 10.3390/en16104061
    [12] Funke SW, Farrell PE, Piggott MD (2014) Tidal turbine array optimisation using the adjoint approach. Renewable Energy 63: 658–673. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2013.09.031 doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2013.09.031
    [13] Zeyringer M, Fais B, Keppo I, et al. (2018) The potential of marine energy technologies in the UK—Evaluation from a systems perspective. Renewable Energy 115: 1281–1293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2017.07.092 doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2017.07.092
    [14] Fard RN, Tedeschi E (2018) Integration of distributed energy resources into offshore and subsea grids. 3: 36–45. https://doi.org/10.24295/CPSSTPEA.2018.00004
    [15] Rahman ML, Oka S, Shirai Y (2010) Hybrid power generation system using offshore-wind turbine and tidal turbine for power fluctuation compensation (HOT-PC). IEEE Trans Sustainable Energy 1: 92–98. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSTE.2010.2050347 doi: 10.1109/TSTE.2010.2050347
    [16] Raza SA, Ali SW, Sadiq M, et al. (2021) Offshore wind farm-grid integration: A review on infrastructure, challenges, and grid solutions. IEEE Access 9: 102811–102827. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3098705 doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3098705
    [17] Boersma S, Doekemeijer BM, Gebraad PMO, et al. (2017) A tutorial on control-oriented modeling and control of wind farms. 2017 American Control Conference (ACC), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.23919/ACC.2017.7962923
    [18] Soukissian TH, Denaxa D, Karathanasi F, et al. (2017) Marine renewable energy in the Mediterranean Sea: Status and perspectives. Energies 10: 1–56. https://doi.org/10.3390/en10101512 doi: 10.3390/en10101512
    [19] Li J, Wang G, Li Z, et al. (2020) A review on development of offshore wind energy conversion system. Int J Energy Res 44: 9283–9297. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.5751 doi: 10.1002/er.5751
    [20] Tavakoli S, Khojasteh D, Haghani M, et al. (2023) A review on the progress and research directions of ocean engineering. Ocean Eng 272: 113617. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2023.113617 doi: 10.1016/j.oceaneng.2023.113617
    [21] Zhou Y (2022) Ocean energy applications for coastal communities with artificial intelligence—A state-of-the-art review. Energy AI 10: 100189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyai.2022.100189 doi: 10.1016/j.egyai.2022.100189
    [22] Shao H, Henriques R, Morais H, et al. (2023) Power quality monitoring in electric grid integrating offshore wind energy : A review. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 191: 114094. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2023.114094 doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2023.114094
    [23] Kai LY, Sarip S, Kaidi HM, et al. (2021) Current status and possible future applications of marine current energy devices in Malaysia : A review. IEEE Access 9: 86869–86888. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3088761 doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3088761
    [24] Itiki R, Di Santo SG, Itiki C, et al. (2019) A comprehensive review and proposed architecture for offshore power system. Int J Electr Power Energy Syst 111: 79–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2019.04.008 doi: 10.1016/j.ijepes.2019.04.008
    [25] Petracca E, Faraggiana E, Ghigo A, et al. (2022) Design and techno-economic analysis of a novel hybrid offshore wind and wave energy system. Energies 15: 2739. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15082739 doi: 10.3390/en15082739
    [26] Zhang J, Moreau L, Machmoum M, et al. (2014) State of the art in tidal current energy extracting technologies. 2014 First International Conference on Green Energy ICGE 2014, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICGE.2014.6835388
    [27] Strasser T, Andrén F, Kathan J, et al. (2015) A review of architectures and concepts for intelligence in future electric energy systems. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 62: 2424–2438. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIE.2014.2361486 doi: 10.1109/TIE.2014.2361486
    [28] Zainol MZ, Ismail N, Zainol I, et al. (2017) A review on the status of tidal energy technology worldwide. Sci Int 29: 659–667. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317617074.
    [29] Kalair A, Abas N, Kalair AR, et al. (2017) Review of harmonic analysis, modeling and mitigation techniques. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 78: 1152–1187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.04.121 doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2017.04.121
    [30] Wei S, Zhang L, Xu Y, et al. (2017) Hierarchical optimization for the double-sided ring structure of the collector system planning of large offshore wind farms. IEEE Trans Sustainable Energy 8: 1029–1040. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSTE.2016.2646061 doi: 10.1109/TSTE.2016.2646061
    [31] Pape M, Kazerani M (2022) A generic power converter sizing framework for series-connected DC offshore wind farms. IEEE Trans Power Electron 37: 2307–2320. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPEL.2021.3106578 doi: 10.1109/TPEL.2021.3106578
    [32] Bose BK (2017) Artificial intelligence techniques in smart grid and renewable energy systems —some example applications. Proc IEEE 105: 2262–2273. https://doi.org/10.1109/JPROC.2017.2756596 doi: 10.1109/JPROC.2017.2756596
    [33] Robins PE, Neill SP, Lewis MJ, et al. (2015) Characterising the spatial and temporal variability of the tidal-stream energy resource over the northwest European shelf seas. Appl Energy 147: 510–522. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.03.045 doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.03.045
    [34] Carlos EWUL (2014) Performance of pitch and stall regulated tidal stream turbines. IEEE Trans Sustainable Energy 5: 64–72. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSTE.2013.2272653 doi: 10.1109/TSTE.2013.2272653
    [35] Kaldellis JK, Boulogiorgou D (2024) Renewable energy: Wind energy. Living With Climate Change 2024: 513–557. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-18515-1.00017-4 doi: 10.1016/B978-0-443-18515-1.00017-4
    [36] Rafiei M, Salvatore F, Capponi FG (2019) Generator topologies for horizontal axis tidal turbine. Lect Notes Electr Eng 615: 447–459. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37161-6_34 doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-37161-6_34
    [37] Li G, Zhu W (2023) Tidal current energy harvesting technologies : A review of current status and life cycle assessment. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 179: 113269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2023.113269 doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2023.113269
    [38] King J, Tryfonas T (2009) Tidal stream power technology—state of the art. OCEANS 2009-EUROPE. https://doi.org/10.1109/OCEANSE.2009.5278329
    [39] Khojasteh D, Shamsipour A, Huang L, et al. (2023) A large-scale review of wave and tidal energy research over the last 20 years. Ocean Eng 282: 114995. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2023.114995 doi: 10.1016/j.oceaneng.2023.114995
    [40] Abd Rahim MW, Rahman AA, Izham M, et al. (2023) Tidal energy in Malaysia: An overview of potentials, device suitability, issues and outlook. Reg Stud Mar Sci 61: 102853. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsma.2023.102853 doi: 10.1016/j.rsma.2023.102853
    [41] Gattuso J, Magnan AK, Bopp L, et al. (2018) Ocean solutions to address climate change and its effects on marine ecosystems. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00337
    [42] Touimi K, Benbouzid M (2020) Optimal Design of a multigrid permanent magnet. 13: 487. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13020487
    [43] Sousounis MC (2018) Electro-Mechanical Modelling of Tidal Arrays. The University of Edinburgh, Ph.D. dissertation. Available from: http://hdl.handle.net/1842/31089.
    [44] Zhang Y, Zhao Y, Sun W, et al. (2021) Ocean wave energy converters : Technical principle, device realization, and performance evaluation. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 141: 110764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.110764 doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2021.110764
    [45] Gustavo M, Gimenez J (2011) Technical and regulatory exigencies for grid connection of wind generation. Wind Farm—Tech Regul Potential Estim Siting Assess. https://doi.org/10.5772/16474
    [46] Blaabjerg F, Liu H, Loh PC (2014) Marine energy generation systems and related monitoring and control. IEEE Instrum Meas Mag 17: 27–32. https://doi.org/10.1109/MIM.2014.6810042 doi: 10.1109/MIM.2014.6810042
    [47] Alcorn R, O'Sullivan DL (2013) Electrical design for ocean energy wave and tidal energy systems. Inst Eng Technol, 53. https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.1934.8804 doi: 10.13140/2.1.1934.8804
    [48] Marten A, Akmatov V, Sørensen TB, et al. (2018) Kriegers flak-combined grid solution: coordinated cross-border control of a meshed HVAC/HVDC offshore wind power grid. https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-rpg.2017.0792
    [49] Sousounis MC, Shek JKH (2017) Mitigation of torque pulsations in variable pitch tidal current turbines using speed control. Proc 12th Eur Wave Tidal Energy Conf. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.32130.17603
    [50] Baykov A, Dar'enkov A, Kurkin A, et al. (2019) Mathematical modelling of a tidal power station with diesel and wind units. J King Saud Univ—Sci 31: 1491–1498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2019.01.009 doi: 10.1016/j.jksus.2019.01.009
    [51] Wang L, Lin CY, Wu HY, et al. (2018) Stability analysis of a microgrid system with a hybrid offshore wind and ocean energy farm fed to a power grid through an HVDC link. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 54: 2012–2022. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIA.2017.2787126 doi: 10.1109/TIA.2017.2787126
    [52] Karimirad M (2014) Offshore Energy Structures, 1st edition, Cham, Switzerland: Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12175-8
    [53] Rusu E (2013) The expected dynamics of the european offshore wind sector in the climate change context. J Mar Sci Eng 11: 1967. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11101967 doi: 10.3390/jmse11101967
    [54] Alfahi STY, Alkahtani AA, Al-Shetwi AQ, et al. (2021) Supraharmonics in power grid: identification, standards, and measurement techniques. IEEE Access 9: 103677–103690. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3099013 doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3099013
    [55] Errami Y, Ieee SM, Maaroufi M (2011) Modelling and control strategy of PMSG based variable speed wind energy conversion system. 2011 Int Conf Multimed Comput Syst 2: 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICMCS.2011.5945736 doi: 10.1109/ICMCS.2011.5945736
    [56] Mousavi GSM (2012) An autonomous hybrid energy system of wind/tidal/microturbine/battery storage. Int J Electr Power Energy Syst 43: 1144–1154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2012.05.060 doi: 10.1016/j.ijepes.2012.05.060
    [57] Cheng M, Zhu Y (2014) The state of the art of wind energy conversion systems and technologies : A review. Energy Convers Manag 88: 332–347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2014.08.037 doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2014.08.037
    [58] Liu M, Sun Z, Liu G, et al. (2019) Study on the influence of large-scale wind power integration on transient stability of power system. APAP 2019—8th IEEE Int Conf Adv Power Syst Autom Prot, 1156–1159. https://doi.org/10.1109/APAP47170.2019.9224650
    [59] Abo-Khalil AG, Alghamdi AS (2021) MPPT of permanent magnet synchronous generator in tidal energy systems using support vector regression. Sustainability 13: 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13042223 doi: 10.3390/su13042223
    [60] Potgieter JHJ, Kamper MJ (2015) Design Optimization of directly grid-connected PM machines for wind energy applications. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 51: 2949–2958. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIA.2015.2394506 doi: 10.1109/TIA.2015.2394506
    [61] Krylov D, Kholod O, Radohuz S (2020) Active rectifier with different control system types. 2020 IEEE 4th International Conference on Intelligent Energy and Power Systems (IEPS), Kyiv, Ukraine. https://doi.org/10.1109/IEPS51250.2020.9263226
    [62] Yan J, Lin H, Feng Y, et al. (2014) Control of a grid-connected direct-drive wind energy conversion system. 66: 371–380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2013.12.037
    [63] Krylov DS, Kholod O (2021) The efficiency of the active-controlled rectifier operation in the mains voltage distortion mode. 2: 30–35. https://doi.org/10.20998/2074-272X.2021.2.05
    [64] Chhipa AA, Chakrabarti P, Bolshev V, et al. (2022) Modeling and control strategy of wind energy conversion system with grid-connected doubly-fed induction generator. Energies, 15. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15186694 doi: 10.3390/en15186694
    [65] Tripathi RN, Singh A, Hanamoto T (2015) Design and control of LCL filter interfaced grid connected solar photovoltaic (SPV) system using power balance theory. Int J Electr Power Energy Syst 69: 264–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2015.01.018 doi: 10.1016/j.ijepes.2015.01.018
    [66] García-Triviño P, Gil-Mena AJ, Llorens-Iborra F, et al. (2015) Power control based on particle swarm optimization of grid-connected inverter for hybrid renewable energy system. Energy Convers Manag 91: 83–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2014.11.051 doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2014.11.051
    [67] Vukobratović M, Marić P, Nikolovski S, et al. (2018) Distributed generation harmonic interaction in the active distribution network. Teh Vjesn 25: 1720–1730. https://doi.org/10.17559/TV-20171025123650 doi: 10.17559/TV-20171025123650
    [68] Sousounis MC, Shek JKH, Mueller MA (2016) Modelling, control and frequency domain analysis of a tidal current conversion system with onshore converters. IET Renewable Power Gener 10: 158–165. https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-rpg.2014.0331 doi: 10.1049/iet-rpg.2014.0331
    [69] Moreira AB, Dos Santos Barros TA, De Castro Teixeira VS, et al. (2019) Control of powers for wind power generation and grid current harmonics filtering from doubly fed induction generator: comparison of two strategies. IEEE Access 7: 32703–32713. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2899456 doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2899456
    [70] Naderipour A, Zin AAM, Bin Habibuddin MH, et al. (2017) An improved synchronous reference frame current control strategy for a photovoltaic grid-connected inverter under unbalanced and nonlinear load conditions. PLoS One 12: 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0164856 doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0164856
    [71] Patil A, Gadgune S (2022) DC side voltage regulation of three phase PWM rectifier control using sliding mode controller. 2022 International Conference on Futuristic Technologies, INCOFT 2022, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1109/INCOFT55651.2022.10094557
    [72] Abu-Siada A, Budiri J, Abdou AF (2018) Solid state transformers topologies, controllers, and applications: State-of-the-art literature review. Electronics, 7. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics7110298 doi: 10.3390/electronics7110298
    [73] Reznik A, Simões MG, Al-Durra A, et al. (2012) LCL filter design and performance analysis for small wind turbine systems. PEMWA 2012—2012 IEEE Power Electron Mach Wind Appl, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1109/PEMWA.2012.6316408
    [74] Cai Y, Member S, He Y, et al. (2023) Integrated design of filter and controller parameters inverter based on harmonic state-space model. IEEE Trans Power Electron 38: 6455–6473. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPEL.2023.3241091 doi: 10.1109/TPEL.2023.3241091
    [75] Ranjan A, Giribabu D (2023) Design of LCL filter for grid connected three phase three level inverter to meet IEEE 519 standards. 2023 IEEE Int Students' Conf Electr Electron Comput Sci SCEECS, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/SCEECS57921.2023.10061817
    [76] Zhan P, Lin W, Wen J, et al. (2012) Design of LCL filters for the back-to-back converter in a doubly fed induction generator. 2012 IEEE Innov Smart Grid Technol—Asia, ISGT Asia 2012, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/ISGT-Asia.2012.6303305
    [77] Reznik A, Simoes MG, Al-Durra A, et al. (2014) LCL filter design and performance analysis for grid-interconnected systems. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 50: 1225–1232. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIA.2013.2274612 doi: 10.1109/TIA.2013.2274612
    [78] Musasa K, Nwulu NI, Gitau MN, et al. (2017) Review on DC collection grids for offshore wind farms with high-voltage DC transmission system. IET Power Electron 10: 2104–2115. https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-pel.2017.0182 doi: 10.1049/iet-pel.2017.0182
    [79] Mansouri A, El A, Lajouad R et al. (2023) Wind energy based conversion topologies and maximum power point tracking: A Comprehensive Review and Analysis. e-Prime—Adv Electr Eng Electron Energy 6: 100351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prime.2023.100351 doi: 10.1016/j.prime.2023.100351
    [80] Liang X (2017) Emerging power quality challenges due to integration of renewable energy sources. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 53: 855–866. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIA.2016.2626253 doi: 10.1109/TIA.2016.2626253
    [81] Yaramasu V, Wu B, Sen PC, et al. (2015) High-power wind energy conversion systems: State-of-the-art and emerging technologies. Proc IEEE 103: 740–788. https://doi.org/10.1109/JPROC.2014.2378692 doi: 10.1109/JPROC.2014.2378692
    [82] Sanjuan SL (2010) Voltage oriented control of three-phase boost PWM converters: design, simulation, and implementation of a 3-phase boost battery charger. Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden, M.S. thesis. Available from: https://doi:publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/173977/173977.
    [83] Ni K, Hu Y, Liu Y, et al. (2017) Performance analysis of a four-switch three-phase grid-side converter with modulation simplification in a doubly-fed induction generator-based wind turbine (DFIG-WT) with different external disturbances. Energies, 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/en10050706
    [84] Amenedo JLR, Gomez SA, Alonso-Martinez J, et al. (2021) Grid-Forming converters control based on the reactive power synchronization method for renewable power plants. IEEE Access 9: 67989–68007. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3078078 doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3078078
    [85] Tola OJ, Tsado J, Umoh EA, et al. (2022) Modeling and simulation of marine current energy conversion system with six-phase permanent magnet synchronous generator. Eurasia Proc Sci Technol Eng Math 21: 1–10. https://doi.org/10.55549/epstem.1224038 doi: 10.55549/epstem.1224038
    [86] Brantsæter H, Kocewiak Ł, Årdal AR, et al. (2015) Passive filter design and offshore wind turbine modelling for system level harmonic studies. Energy Procedia 80: 401–410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2015.11.444 doi: 10.1016/j.egypro.2015.11.444
    [87] Deng J, Cheng F, Yao L, et al. (2023) A review of system topologies, key operation and control technologies for offshore wind power transmission based on HVDC. IET Gener Transm Distrib 17: 3345–3363. https://doi.org/10.1049/gtd2.12894 doi: 10.1049/gtd2.12894
    [88] Jain A, Shankar S, Vanitha V (2018) Power generation using Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG) based variable speed wind energy conversion system (WECS): An overview. J Green Eng 7: 477–504. https://doi.org/10.13052/jge1904-4720.742 doi: 10.13052/jge1904-4720.742
    [89] Korompili A, Wu Q, Zhao H (2016) Review of VSC HVDC connection for offshore wind power integration. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 59: 1405–1414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.01.064 doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2016.01.064
    [90] Patra RR, Asha RMA, Krishna PB (2023) Active power control of Hybrid-HVDC line connected to offshore DFIG-based wind farm during mainland grid voltage fluctuations. 2023 IEEE IAS Glob Conf Renew Energy Hydrog Technol GlobConHT 2023, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1109/GlobConHT56829.2023.10087847
    [91] Roy A, Auger F, Dupriez-Robin F, et al. (2018) Electrical power supply of remote maritime areas: A review of hybrid systems based on marine renewable energies. Energies, 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/en11071904 doi: 10.3390/en11071904
    [92] Krneta N, Sano K (2024) AC fault ride-through method of HVDC interconnector for islanded AC grid with offshore wind farm and loads. IEEE Access 12: 62099—62106. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3394322 doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3394322
    [93] Sousounis MC, Shek JKH, Mueller MA (2016) Filter design for cable overvoltage and power loss minimization in a tidal energy system with onshore converters. IEEE Trans Sustainable Energy 7: 400–408. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSTE.2015.2424258 doi: 10.1109/TSTE.2015.2424258
    [94] Chen H, Tang T, Ait-Ahmed N, et al. (2018) Attraction, challenge and current status of marine current energy. IEEE Access 6: 12665–12685. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2795708 doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2795708
    [95] Abdelsalam I, Adam GP, Williams BW (2016) Current source back-to-back converter for wind energy conversion systems. IET Renewable Power Gener 10: 1552–1561. https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-rpg.2016.0177 doi: 10.1049/iet-rpg.2016.0177
    [96] Rajendran S, Diaz M, Cárdenas R, et al. (2022) A review of generators and power converters for multi-mw wind energy conversion systems. Processes, 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10112302 doi: 10.3390/pr10112302
    [97] Raza M (2021) Voltage and reactive power correlation in multi-objective optimization of an offshore grid. Automatika 62: 454–470. https://doi.org/10.1080/00051144.2021.1984632 doi: 10.1080/00051144.2021.1984632
    [98] Garcia P, Kyozuka Y (2021) Tidal stream energy as a potential continuous power producer: A case study for West Japan. Energy Convers Manag 245: 114533. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2021.114533 doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2021.114533
    [99] Chen H, Aït-Ahmed N, Zaïm EH, et al. (2012) Marine tidal current systems: State of the art. IEEE Int Symp Ind Electron, 1431–1437. https://doi.org/10.1109/ISIE.2012.6237301 doi: 10.1109/ISIE.2012.6237301
    [100] Yin X, Zhao X (2021) Optimal power extraction of a two-stage tidal turbine system based on backstepping disturbance rejection control. Int J Electr Power Energy Syst 132: 107158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2021.107158 doi: 10.1016/j.ijepes.2021.107158
    [101] Knight C, Mcgarry S, Hayward J, et al. (2014) A review of ocean energy converters, with an Australian focus. 2: 295–320. https://doi.org/10.3934/energy.2014.3.295
    [102] Touimi K, Benbouzid M, Tavner P (2018) Tidal stream turbines: With or without a Gearbox? Ocean Eng 170: 74–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2018.10.013 doi: 10.1016/j.oceaneng.2018.10.013
    [103] Elzalabani M, Fahmy FH, Nafeh AESA, et al. (2015) Modelling and simulation of tidal current turbine with permanent magnet synchronous generator. TELKOMNIKA Indones J Electr Eng, 13. https://doi.org/10.11591/telkomnika.v13i1.7017 doi: 10.11591/telkomnika.v13i1.7017
    [104] Tian W, Mao Z, Ding H (2018) Design, test and numerical simulation of a low-speed horizontal axis hydrokinetic turbine. Int J Nav Archit Ocean Eng 10: 782–793. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnaoe.2017.10.006 doi: 10.1016/j.ijnaoe.2017.10.006
    [105] Touimi K (2020) Design optimization of a gearbox driven tidal stream turbine. Universite de Bretagne Occidentale. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2018.10.013
    [106] Habibi H, Nohooji HR, Howard I (2017) Power maximization of variable-speed variable-pitch wind turbines using passive adaptive neural fault tolerant control. 12: 377–388. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11465-017-0431-4
    [107] Njiri JG, Söffker D (2016) State-of-the-art in wind turbine control: Trends and challenges. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 60: 377–393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.01.110 doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2016.01.110
    [108] Bensalah A, Benhamida MA, Barakat G, et al. (2018) Large wind turbine generators: State-of-the-art review. 2018 XⅢ Int. Conf Electr Mach, 2205–2211. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICELMACH.2018.8507165
    [109] Rourke FO, Boyle F, Reynolds A (2010) Marine current energy devices: Current status and possible future applications in Ireland. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 14: 1026–1036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2009.11.012 doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2009.11.012
    [110] Zhou Z, Benbouzid M, Charpentier J, et al. (2017) Developments in large marine current turbine technologies—A review. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 71: 852–858. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.12.113 doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2016.12.113
    [111] Hu C, Tang C, Yuwen C, et al. (2021) Coupled interactions analysis of a floating tidal current power station in uniform flow. J Mar Sci Eng, 9. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9090958 doi: 10.3390/jmse9090958
    [112] Chen H, Li Q, Benbouzid M, et al. (2021) Development and research status of tidal current power generation systems in China. J Mar Sci Eng, 9. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9111286 doi: 10.3390/jmse9111286
    [113] Si Y, Liu X, Wang T, et al. (2022) State-of-the-art review and future trends of development of tidal current energy converters in China. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 167: 112720. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112720 doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2022.112720
    [114] Zhang Y, Shek JKH, Mueller MA (2023) Controller design for a tidal turbine array, considering both power and loads aspects. Renewable Energy 216: 119063. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2023.119063 doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2023.119063
    [115] Lamy JV, Azevedo IL (2020) Do tidal stream energy projects o ff er more value than offshore wind farms? A case study in the United Kingdom. Energy Policy 113: 28–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2017.10.030 doi: 10.1016/j.enpol.2017.10.030
    [116] Ma Y, Hu C, Li L (2021) Hydrodynamics and wake flow analysis of a Π-type vertical axis twin-rotor tidal current turbine in surge motion. Ocean Eng 224: 10862. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2021.108625 doi: 10.1016/j.oceaneng.2021.108625
    [117] Hussain A, Arif SM, Aslam M (2017) Emerging renewable and sustainable energy technologies: State of the art. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 71: 12–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.12.033 doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2016.12.033
    [118] Tekobon J, Chabour F, Nichita C (2017) Development of HILS emulator for a hybrid wind— tidal power system. Proc 2016 Int Conf Electr Sci Technol Maghreb, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1109/CISTEM.2016.8066821
    [119] Lande-sudall D, Stallard T, Stansby P (2018) Co-located offshore wind and tidal stream turbines: Assessment of energy yield and loading. Renewable Energy 118: 627–643. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2017.10.063 doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2017.10.063
    [120] Nkwanyana TB, Siti MW, Wang Z, et al. (2023) An assessment of hybrid-energy storage systems in the renewable environments. J Energy Storage 72: 108307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.108307 doi: 10.1016/j.est.2023.108307
    [121] Kanagji L, Raji A, Orumwense E (2024) Optimizing sustainability offshore hybrid tidal-wind energy storage systems for an off-grid coastal city in South Africa. Sustainability 16: 913. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16219139 doi: 10.3390/su16219139
    [122] Caraiman G, Nichita C, Mînzu V, et al. (2011) Concept study of offshore wind and tidal hybrid conversion based on real time simulation. Renewable Energy Power Qual J 1: 812–817. https://doi.org/10.24084/repqj09.459 doi: 10.24084/repqj09.459
    [123] Lande-sudall D, Stallard T, Stansby P (2019) Co-located deployment of o ff shore wind turbines with tidal stream turbine arrays for improved cost of electricity generation. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 104: 492–503. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.01.035 doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2019.01.035
    [124] Faridnia N, Habibi D, Lachowicz S, et al. (2019) Optimal scheduling in a microgrid with a tidal generation. Energy 171: 435–443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2018.12.079 doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2018.12.079
    [125] Rahman ML, Nishimura K, Motobayashi K, et al. (2014) Characteristic of small-scale BESS for HOTT generation system. Dig Tech Pap—InnoTek 2014 2014 IEEE Innov Technol Conf, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1109/InnoTek.2014.6877363
  • This article has been cited by:

    1. Ke Shang, Muhammad Asif, The Design of a Compound Neural Network-Based Economic Management Model for Advancing the Digital Economy, 2023, 35, 1546-2234, 1, 10.4018/JOEUC.330678
    2. Aniruddha Sen, Palani Selvam Mohanraj, Vijaya Laxmi, Sumel Ashique, Rajalakshimi Vasudevan, Afaf Aldahish, Anupriya Velu, Arani Das, Iman Ehsan, Anas Islam, Sabina Yasmin, Mohammad Yousuf Ansari, Advancement of artificial intelligence based treatment strategy in type 2 diabetes: A critical update, 2025, 20951779, 101305, 10.1016/j.jpha.2025.101305
    3. G. Revathy, J. Justina Princy Thilagavathy, C Saranya, M. Thangavel, 2025, SmartRecovery: A Deep Learning-Based System for Personalized Post-Cold Recovery Management in Diabetic Patients, 979-8-3315-0574-5, 303, 10.1109/ICMLAS64557.2025.10968754
  • Reader Comments
  • © 2025 the Author(s), licensee AIMS Press. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)
通讯作者: 陈斌, bchen63@163.com
  • 1. 

    沈阳化工大学材料科学与工程学院 沈阳 110142

  1. 本站搜索
  2. 百度学术搜索
  3. 万方数据库搜索
  4. CNKI搜索

Metrics

Article views(1121) PDF downloads(75) Cited by(0)

Figures and Tables

Figures(35)  /  Tables(1)

Other Articles By Authors

/

DownLoad:  Full-Size Img  PowerPoint
Return
Return

Catalog