In this review, scientists have struggled to apply logic to rational beliefs of collectives, concluding that belief logics fail in the face of conflict and uncertainty where reality governs. We have generalized this finding by concluding that traditional social science based on independent concepts about individuals and interpretations of reality requires too many fixes to address its replication crisis, yet ignores the generalization of individuals to teams, for which social science has become largely irrelevant. Unable to process the data dependencies of autonomous human-machine teammates in orthogonal roles for successful teams, producing zero correlations, this problem extends to traditional social science predicated on the belief that perceptions in closed systems (laboratories) are eality. But, as the National Academy of Sciences has noted, this assumption fails in open spaces. Thus, the study of group processes has de-evolved to become overly focused on individuals (e.g., biases), which do not generalize to teams. For a theory of autonomous human-machine teams and systems, generalization is critical. By using an open-systems approach, we have been able to explain the failures of social science, and its ack of success in the field, and we have generalized to autonomous human-machine teams and human-human teams. We extend our theory to conclude that traditional belief logics uses assumptions that, if not tested in reality (e.g., with debates), can be lethal (e.g, DoD's drone tragedy in Afghanistan in 2021). We conclude that an AI machine operating interdependently with a human teammate, jointly challenging each other's beliefs about reality while sharing and shaping their experiences, is the path to autonomy in the open, justifying our research program.
Citation: William F. Lawless. Autonomous human-machine teams: Reality constrains logic, but hides the complexity of data dependency[J]. Data Science in Finance and Economics, 2022, 2(4): 464-499. doi: 10.3934/DSFE.2022023
In this review, scientists have struggled to apply logic to rational beliefs of collectives, concluding that belief logics fail in the face of conflict and uncertainty where reality governs. We have generalized this finding by concluding that traditional social science based on independent concepts about individuals and interpretations of reality requires too many fixes to address its replication crisis, yet ignores the generalization of individuals to teams, for which social science has become largely irrelevant. Unable to process the data dependencies of autonomous human-machine teammates in orthogonal roles for successful teams, producing zero correlations, this problem extends to traditional social science predicated on the belief that perceptions in closed systems (laboratories) are eality. But, as the National Academy of Sciences has noted, this assumption fails in open spaces. Thus, the study of group processes has de-evolved to become overly focused on individuals (e.g., biases), which do not generalize to teams. For a theory of autonomous human-machine teams and systems, generalization is critical. By using an open-systems approach, we have been able to explain the failures of social science, and its ack of success in the field, and we have generalized to autonomous human-machine teams and human-human teams. We extend our theory to conclude that traditional belief logics uses assumptions that, if not tested in reality (e.g., with debates), can be lethal (e.g, DoD's drone tragedy in Afghanistan in 2021). We conclude that an AI machine operating interdependently with a human teammate, jointly challenging each other's beliefs about reality while sharing and shaping their experiences, is the path to autonomy in the open, justifying our research program.
| [1] | Abi-Habib M, Lopez O (2022) 'Absolute Warfare': Cartels Terrorize Mexico as Security Forces Fall Short. The president disbanded the Federal Police and created the National Guard to tackle soaring violence, but three years later, criminal cartels have expanded their reach, New York Times. Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/31/world/americas/mexico-cartels-violence.html |
| [2] | Arkin A (2022) How Putin Botched the Ukraine War and Put Russia's Military Might at Risk, Newsweek. Available from: https://www.newsweek.com/2022/08/26/how-putin-botched-ukraine-war-put-russias-military-might-risk-1736311.html |
| [3] | Ashford G (2022) The School Shooting Is Fake. Can It Prepare an Officer for a Real One? A million facility in upstate New York is trying to teach officers the thing they'll need most during the next mass shooting: bravery, New York Times. Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/24/nyregion/gunman-shooter-training-schools.html |
| [4] | Augier M, Barrett SFX (2021) GENERAL ANTHONY ZINNI (RET.) ON WARGAMING IRAQ, MILLENNIUM CHALLENGE, AND COMPETITION, Center for International Maritime Security. Available from: https://cimsec.org/general-anthony-zinni-ret-on-wargaming-iraq-millennium-challenge-and-competition |
| [5] | Axelrod R (1984) The evolution of cooperation. New York, Basic. |
| [6] | Bachman R (2022) The Landscaper's Daughter Who Grew Into One of America's Top Tennis Players. Danielle Collins, aiming to reach her second Grand Slam final this year, built her game on city courts with her father as coach, Wall Street Journal. Available from https://www.wsj.com/articles/danielle-collins-us-open-naomi-osaka-11661727088 |
| [7] | Bastiat MF (1850) CE OU'ON VOIT. CE QU'ON NE VOIT PAS. 'ÉCONOMIE POLITIQUB EN UNE LECON "What is Seen and What is Not Seen, or Political Economy in One Lesson". Paris: Librairie de Guillaumin. |
| [8] | Batchelor V, Nussbaum A (2022) Orange, Masmovil Sign Deal to Forge Billion Telecom Unit. Agreement includes trigger for possible initial share sale. Deal to test EU regulators' willingness to allow consolidation, Bloomberg. Available from https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-07-23/orange-masmovil-sign-binding-deal-to-combine-spain-operations |
| [9] |
Baumeister RF, Vohs KD (2007) Self-Regulation, Ego Depletion, and Motivation. Soc Pers Psychol Compass 1: 115-128. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00001.x doi: 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00001.x
|
| [10] | Bednar RL, Peterson SR (1995) Self-esteem Paradoxes and innovations in clinical practice, 2nd edition. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association (APA). |
| [11] | Belkin D (2022) Broke Colleges Resort to Mergers for Survival. Takeovers increase as a shakeup in higher education leaves schools in trouble. Northeastern does a deal for struggling Mills, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/amp/articles/broke-colleges-resort-to-mergers-for-survival-11658239445 |
| [12] | Berger P (2022) Logistics Giant DSV Targets U.S. in Renewed Acquisition Drive. CEO Jens Bjørn Andersen has built the freight forwarder into a global heavyweight, but says more consolidation is likely in the highly fragmented market, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/denmarks-dsv-is-turning-its-logistics-acquisition-ambitions-toward-the-u-s-11660317038 |
| [13] | Berscheid E, Reis HT (1998) Attraction and close relationships. In DT. Gilbert, G. Lindzey & S.T. Fiske (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology 2 (4th Edition), London, UK: Lawrence Erlbaum, 193-281. |
| [14] |
Blanton H, Jaccard J, Klick J, et al. (2009) Strong Claims and Weak Evidence: Reassessing the Predictive Validity of the IAT. J Appl Psychol 94: 567–582. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014665 doi: 10.1037/a0014665
|
| [15] | Boston W, Kantchev G (2022) VW Board Ousts CEO Herbert Diess After Pivot to Electric Vehicles. Chief executive is stepping down effective Sept. 1 and will be succeeded by Porsche CEO Oliver Blume, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/volkswagen-ceo-herbert-diess-is-stepping-down-11658507894 |
| [16] | Cheng S (2022a) Warren Buffett-Backed Chinese Car Maker BYD Zooms Past Rivals. The company saw sales of electric vehicles and hybrids skyrocket as rivals such as Tesla suffered plant shutdowns elsewhere, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/warren-buffett-backed-chinese-car-maker-byd-zooms-past-rivals-11658754000 |
| [17] | Cheng S (2022b) Warren Buffett's Berkshire Hathaway Trims Stake in Chinese Auto Maker BYD. Investment firm sells 1.33 million shares for about million, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/warren-buffetts-berkshire-hathaway-trims-stake-in-chinese-auto-maker-byd-11661880958 |
| [18] | Chin J, Lin L (2022) The Two Faces of China's Surveillance State. The government's new social contract promises the security and convenience of a perfectly engineered society—to those who don't resist, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-two-faces-of-chinas-surveillance-state-11662130940 |
| [19] | Christensen CM, Alton R, Rising C, et al. (2011) The big idea: The new M & A Playbook. Harvard Business Review, Available from: https://hbr.org/2011/03/the-big-idea-the-new-ma-playbook |
| [20] | Cohen J (2013) Human Nature Sinks HIV Prevention Trial. Science 351: 1160. http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2013/03/human-nature-sinks-hiv-prevention-trial |
| [21] | Cohler AM, Miller BC, Stone HS (Tr.) (1989/1748) Montesquieu: The Spirit of the Laws. Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. ISBN 0-521-36974-6 ISBN 978-0-521-36974-9 |
| [22] | Cole KC (2015) Wormholes Untangle a Black Hole Paradox. A bold new idea aims to link two famously discordant descriptions of nature. In doing so, it may also reveal how space-time owes its existence to the spooky connections of quantum information, Quanta. Available from https://www.quantamagazine.org/wormhole-entanglement-and-the-firewall-paradox-20150424/ |
| [23] | Coles I (2022) Russia Hunts Saboteurs in Crimea After Blasts. Ukrainian officials say missile attacks hit Odessa and Mykolaiv, in the south of the country, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/russia-strikes-ukrainian-ports-after-crimea-blasts-11660734371 |
| [24] | Collison P, Cowen T (2019) We Need a New Science of Progress. Humanity needs to get better at knowing how to get better. Available from: https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2019/07/we-need-new-science-progress/594946/ |
| [25] |
Conant RC (1976) Laws of information which govern systems. IEEE Trans Syst Man Cyb 6: 240-255. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSMC.1976.5408775 doi: 10.1109/TSMC.1976.5408775
|
| [26] | Cooke NJ, Hilton ML (Eds.) (2015) Enhancing the Effectiveness of Team Science. Authors: Committee on the Science of Team Science; Board on Behavioral, Cognitive, and Sensory Sciences; Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education; National Research Council. Washington (DC): National Academies Press. |
| [27] | Cooke NJ, Lawless WF (2021) Effective Human-Artificial Intelligence Teaming, In Lawless, WF, Mittu, R, Sofge DA, Shortell T, McDermott, TA, Engineering Science and Artificial Intelligence, Springer. |
| [28] | Cummings J (2015) Team Science Successes and Challenges. National Science Foundation Sponsored Workshop on Fundamentals of Team Science and the Science of Team Science (June 2), Bethesda MD. Available from: https://www.ohsu.edu/xd/education/schools/school-of-medicine/departments/clinical-departments/radiation-medicine/upload/12-_cummings_talk.pdf |
| [29] | Dash E (2022) Big Retail Chains Sue Visa, Saying Its Fees Are a Form of Price Fixing, New York Times. Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/16/business/7-big-retail-chains-sue-visa-saying-its-fees-are-a-form-of-price.html |
| [30] | Davenport TH, Miller SM (2022) Working with AI: Real Stories of Human-Machine Collaboration (Management on the Cutting Edge). The MIT Press. |
| [31] | Davies P (2021) Does new physics lurk inside living matter? Physics Today 73: 34-41. https://doi.org/10.1063/PT.3.4546 |
| [32] | Dlugy Y (2022) Reversal of Fortune. A Ukrainian blitz routs Russian troops from northeast and reshapes the war, New York Times. Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/12/briefing/russia-ukraine-war-kharkiv-counteroffensive.html |
| [33] | DoD (2021) Pentagon Press Secretary John F. Kirby and Air Force Lt. Gen. Sami D. Said Hold a Press Briefing. Available from: https://www.defense.gov/News/Transcripts/Transcript/Article/2832634/pentagon-press-secretary-john-f-kirby-and-air-force-lt-gen-sami-d-said-hold-a-p/ |
| [34] | Duguid K, Samson A, Smith C (2022) 'Volatility vortex' slams into tn US government bond market. Key measure of turbulence in Treasuries reaches highest level since 2020 coronavirus crisis, Financial Times. Available from: https://www.ft.com/content/ea41ce6d-e8b2-465e-8dff-8b7fa71dc7b4. |
| [35] | Eaglesham J (2022) EY Leaders Green Light Split Plan. Breakup of auditing and consulting businesses will generate windfalls for partners if successful, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/ey-to-announce-breakup-plan-for-audit-and-advisory-businesses-11662639241 |
| [36] | Endsley MR, et al. (2021) Human-AI Teaming: State-of-the-Art and Research Needs. The National Academies of Sciences-Engineering-Medicine. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Available from: https://www.nap.edu/catalog/26355/human-ai-teaming-state-of-the-art-and-research-needs |
| [37] | Evans M, Herrera S (2022) Amazon Faces Fierce Competition in Health Ambitions After One Medical Deal. Tech giant's acquisition of primary-care clinics is unlike previous expansions into groceries, entertainment and advertising, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/amazon-faces-fierce-competition-in-health-ambitions-after-one-medical-deal-11658482202 |
| [38] | FBI (2022) Cyber Criminals Increasingly Exploit Vulnerabilities in Decentralized Finance Platforms to Obtain Cryptocurrency, Causing Investors to Lose Money, Alert Number I-082922-PSA. Available from: https://www.ic3.gov/Media/Y2022/PSA220829?campaign_id=4&emc=edit_dk_20220831&instance_id=70696&nl=dealbook®i_id=73891308&segment_id=102829&te=1&user_id=40d180f362e4da095b59668641b92e3f |
| [39] | Fidler S, Marson J, Grove T (2022) How Ukrainian Strategy Is Running Circles Around Russia's Lumbering Military. Classic military operations and nimble battlefield decision-making are exploiting the incompetence and top-down command of Russian forces, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/how-ukraines-strategy-is-running-circles-around-russias-lumbering-military-11665584517 |
| [40] | Finley A (2022a) Amazon Discovers That Even Paranoids Have Competitors. Its bids for iRobot and One Medical aren't an attempt to take over the world but to keep up with Walmart, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/amazon-discovers-that-even-paranoids-have-competitors-irobot-one-medical-acquisition-walmart-competition-ftc-lina-khan-monopoly-profit-11662901970 |
| [41] | Finley A (2022b) When Electric Vehicles Sound Too Good to Be True. The Trevor Milton trial offers a lesson about getting into vehicles with socially responsible investors, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/when-electric-vehicles-sound-too-good-to-be-true-nikola-trevor-milton-fraud-trial-indictment-spac-vectoiq-blackrock-theranos-11663534517 |
| [42] | Friedman RM (2022) The 100th Anniversary of Einstein's Nobel Prize: Facts and Fiction. Annalen der Physik 2200305. https://doi.org/10.1002/andp.202200305 |
| [43] | Friedman G (2022) What Is Russia Thinking? Geopolitical Futures. Available from: https://geopoliticalfutures.com/what-is-russia-thinking/ |
| [44] | Gaddis JL (2011) George F. Kennan: An American Life. New York: Penguin Books. |
| [45] | Garcia L (2022) Apollo Global to Sell Tower Operator Parallel to Palistar-Backed Company. Digital-infrastructure investor Palistar plans to spend more than billion to expand the combined business, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/apollo-global-to-sell-tower-operator-parallel-to-palistar-backed-company-11661855405 |
| [46] | Ginsburg RB (2011) American Electric Power Co., Inc., et al. v. Connecticut et al., 10-174. http://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/10pdf/10-174.pdf |
| [47] | Gopnik A (2022) What AI Still Doesn't Know How to Do. Artificial intelligence programs that learn to write and speak can sound almost human—but they can't think creatively like a small child can, Wall Street Journal. Available from https://www.wsj.com/articles/what-ai-still-doesnt-know-/how-to-do-11657891316 |
| [48] | Granovetter MS (1973) The strength of weak ties, Am J Soc 78: 1360–1380. https://doi.org/10.1086/225469 |
| [49] | Haass R (2022) The Dangerous Decade. A Foreign Policy for a World in Crisis, Foreign Affairs. Available from: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/united-states/dangerous-decade-foreign-policy-world-crisis-richard-haass |
| [50] | Harris M (2021) Phantom Warships Are Courting Chaos in Conflict Zones WIRED. Available from: https://www.wired.com/story/fake-warships-ais-signals-russia-crimea/ |
| [51] | Hart C (2022) Amazon Buying Roomba Maker iRobot for.7 Billion. Deal for robot vacuum adds to Amazon's connected-home portfolio, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/amazon-buying-roomba-maker-irobot-for-1-7-billion-11659702187 |
| [52] | Hayek F (1944) The road to serfdom, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. |
| [53] | Hipwell D, Henning E (2022) Adidas Seeks New CEO Following Rorsted's Surprise Departure. Board agreed with Rorsted to help with transition to new boss. Rorsted engineered Reebok sale, issued recent profit warning, Bloomberg. Available from: https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-08-22/adidas-ceo-to-step-down-in-2023-replacement-search-under-way |
| [54] | Hoyle B (2022) Coal Miner Peabody Energy in Deal Talks With Australian Rival Coronado. Coal prices have surged to record highs following Russia's invasion of Ukraine, restoring producers' finances, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/coal-miner-peabody-energy-in-deal-talks-with-australian-rival-coronado-11665561020 |
| [55] | Hua S (2021) China's Treatment of Uyghurs Amounts to Genocide, U.K.-Based Panel Finds. Beijing pursues a "deliberate, systematic and concerted policy" to reduce the population of Uyghurs and other ethnic minorities, says panel of lawyers, academics and activists, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/chinas-treatment-of-uyghurs-amounts-to-genocide-u-k-based-panel-finds-11639068852 |
| [56] | Huang R (2022) Tencent Weighs Stake Sale in Chinese Delivery Company Meituan. Social-media behemoth considers cutting investments in tech companies as Beijing curbs influence of China's tech giants, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/tencent-weighs-stake-sale-in-chinese-delivery-giant-meituan-11660649913 |
| [57] | Hume D (1975) A Treatise of Human Nature, edited by L. A. Selby-Bigge, 2nd ed. revised by PH. Nidditch, Oxford: Clarendon Press. |
| [58] | Jones EE (1998) Major developments in five decades of social psychology, In Gilbert, DT, Fiske, ST, Lindzey, G, The Handbook of Social Psychology 3-57. Boston: McGraw-Hill. |
| [59] | Jussim L (1993) Accuracy in Interpersonal Expectations: A Reflection-Construction Analysis of Current and Classic Research, J Pers 61: 637-668. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1993.tb00785.x |
| [60] | Kahneman D (2002) Maps of bounded rationality: A perspective on intuitive judgment and choice, Prize Lecture. Available from: http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economic-sciences/laureates/2002/kahnemann-lecture.pdf |
| [61] | Kang J (2022) Kroger to Buy Albertsons in.6 Billion Deal That Would Create New Grocery Giant. The combination, which faces likely regulatory scrutiny, would give the grocers greater scale, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/kroger-to-merge-with-albertsons-in-a-24-6-billion-deal-11665745735 |
| [62] | Kapner S (2022) Bed Bath & Beyond Followed a Winning Playbook—and Lost. The retailer's emphasis on creating private-label items before modernizing its technology meant it was caught flat-footed when the pandemic struck. 'Where is Mikasa? Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/bed-bath-beyond-ceo-private-label-brands-11658547084 |
| [63] | Karaian J, Majerol V (2022) Why Are C.E.O.s Suddenly Obsessed With 'Elasticity?' The economic concept, which describes consumers' sensitivity to prices, is a hot topic as inflation soars and executives fret about profits, New York Times. Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/19/business/elasticity-prices-inflation.html? |
| [64] | Kennan GF (Note: the author was previously known as "X") (1947), The Sources of Soviet Conduct, Foreign Affairs. Available from: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/russian-federation/1947-07-01/sources-soviet-conduct |
| [65] | Kenny DA, Kashy DA, Bolger N (1998) Data analyses in social psychology. Handbook of Social Psychology. DT Gilbert, Fiske ST, Lindzey G, Boston MA, McGraw-Hill. 4th Ed., Vol. 1: pp. 233-65. |
| [66] | Kirby WC (2022) Empires of Ideas: Creating the Modern University from Germany to America to China. Belknap Press. |
| [67] | Klein PG (2021) The State of Modern Economics, The Austrian 7, no. 2 (March/April 2021): 4–15. Or, cite: Deist, J. Klein, P. The State of Modern Economics. Interview. Von Mises Institute. Available from: https://mises.org/library/state-modern-economics |
| [68] | Klein E (2022) We know shockingly little about what makes humanity prosper, New York Times. Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/27/opinion/ezra-klein-podcast-patrick-collison.html |
| [69] | Kolata G (2022) A Devious Cellular Trick Cancers Can Use to Escape Your Immune System. A researcher discovered that giant cells under a microscope were actually cancer cells hiding inside other cancer cells, New York Times. Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/29/health/cancer-hiding-cells.html |
| [70] |
Lapiedra O, Schoener TW, Leal M, et al. (2018) Predator-driven natural selection on risk-taking behavior in anole lizards. Science 360: 1017-1020. doi: 10.1126/science.aap9289 doi: 10.1126/science.aap9289
|
| [71] |
Lawless WF, Akiyoshi M, Angjellari-Dajcic F, et al. (2014) Public consent for the geologic disposal of highly radioactive wastes and spent nuclear fuel. Int J Environ Stud 71: 41-62. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207233.2014.881165 doi: 10.1080/00207233.2014.881165
|
| [72] | Lawless WF (2017a) The entangled nature of interdependence. Bistability, irreproducibility and uncertainty. J Math Psychol 78: 51-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmp.2016.11.001 |
| [73] | Lawless WF (2017b) The physics of teams: Interdependence, measurable entropy and computational emotion. Front phys 5: 30. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphy.2017.00030 |
| [74] | Lawless WF (2019) The Interdependence of Autonomous Human-Machine Teams: The Entropy of Teams, But Not Individuals, Advances Science. Entropy 21: 1195. https://doi.org/10.3390/e21121195 |
| [75] | Lawless WF (2020) Quantum-Like Interdependence Theory Advances Autonomous Human–Machine Teams (A-HMTs). Entropy 22: 1227. https://doi.org/10.3390/e22111227 |
| [76] | Lawless WF (2022a) Risk Determination versus Risk Perception: A New Model of Reality for Human–Machine Autonomy. Informatics 9: 30. https://doi.org/10.3390/informatics9020030 |
| [77] | Lawless WF (2022b) Toward a physics of interdependence for autonomous human-machine systems: The case of the Uber fatal accident. Front Phys 2022: 546 https://doi.org/10.3389/fphy.2022.879171 |
| [78] | Lawless WF (2022c) Interdependent Autonomous Human-Machine Systems: The Complementarity of Fitness, Vulnerability & Evolution. Entropy 24: 1308. https://doi.org/10.3390/e24091308 |
| [79] | Lawless WF, Mittu R, Sofge DA, et al. (2019) Editorial, Artificial intelligence (AI), autonomy and human-machine teams: Interdependence, context and explainable AI, AI Magazine 40: 5-13. https://doi.org/10.1609/aimag.v40i3.2866. |
| [80] | Leach CW (2021) Editorial, Interpersonal Relations and Group Processes. J Pers Soc Psychol http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000226 |
| [81] | Leffler Melvyn P (2007) For the Soul of Mankind: The United States, the Soviet Union, and the Cold War. New York: Hill and Wang. |
| [82] | Lewin K (1951) Field theory of social science. Selected theoretical papers. Darwin Cartwright (Ed.). New York: Harper & Brothers. |
| [83] | Lieber D (2022) Israeli Cyber Firm NSO Replaces CEO, Plans Layoffs. The maker of powerful spyware called Pegasus will focus its business on NATO-member countries, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/israeli-cyber-firm-nso-replaces-ceo-plans-layoffs-11661104478 |
| [84] | Lombardo C, Cooper L, Terlep S (2022) CVS Plans to Bid for Signify Health. Deal would help CVS fulfill its ambition to become even bigger provider of medical services, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/cvs-plans-to-bid-for-signify-health-sources-say-11659890029 |
| [85] | Lombardo C, Terlep S, Kapner S (2022) Inside Bed Bath & Beyond, Concerns Over Mounting Stress for CFO. The retailer's leaders thought finance chief Gustavo Arnal was overwhelmed; Arnal had discussed taking a break before he died, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/inside-bed-bath-beyond-concerns-over-mounting-stress-for-cfo-11662589539 |
| [86] | Lombardo C, Cimilluca D, Tilley A (2022) Adobe to Buy Collaboration-Software Company Figma for About Billion. The technology giant also reported quarterly net income of.14 billion, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/adobe-to-buy-figma-for-about-20-billion-sources-say-11663241962 |
| [87] | Lu C (2022) Putin's Energy War Is Crushing Europe. The big question is whether it ends up undermining support for Ukraine, Foreign Policy. Available from: https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/09/20/europe-energy-crisis-economy-emergency-russia-war-ukraine/ |
| [88] | Lukpat A, Rizzo L, Toonkel J (2022) Axios's 5 Million Sale to Cox Marks Merger of New and Old Media. Deal brings together a digital news site with a legacy media company amid a flurry of publishing mergers, Wall Street Journal. Available from: from https://www.wsj.com/articles/axios-to-be-acquired-by-cox-enterprises-for-525-million-11659969645 |
| [89] | Lyall J (2020) Divided Armies: Inequality and Battlefield Performance in Modern War. Princeton University Press. |
| [90] | Mann RP (2018) Collective decision making by rational individuals, PNAS, 115: E10387-E10396; from: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1811964115 |
| [91] | Maremont M (2022) Slice of Profits From North Carolina Casino Goes to Relatives of Politicians. Slot-machine firm gave small holdings to politically connected people during effort to develop tribal gambling project, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/slice-of-profits-from-north-carolina-casino-goes-to-relatives-of-politicians-11659268801 |
| [92] | Marson J, Simmons AM, Luxmoore M (2022) Explosions Hit Russian Ammunition Depot in Crimea. Blasts prompt evacuations and come a week after explosions at an air base on the peninsula, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/explosions-hit-russian-ammunition-depot-in-crimea-11660635257 |
| [93] | McLeod SA, (2008) Social roles. Simply Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/social-roles.html |
| [94] | Miller C (2022) Why Russia Lacks 'Smart' Weapons. Precision-guided munitions require sophisticated microchips, and Russia has long depended on copying or smuggling them from the West rather than developing them on its own, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/why-russia-lacks-smart-weapons-11664461225 |
| [95] | Morris WE, Brown CR (2022) "David Hume", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward N. Zalta (ed.). Available from: https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2022/entries/hume |
| [96] | Murphy D (2022) Sorting Through the Noise: The Evolving Nature of the Fog of War, Strategy Bridge. Available from: https://thestrategybridge.org/the-bridge/2022/9/10/sorting-through-the-noise-the-evolving-nature-of-the-fog-of-war |
| [97] | Nosek B, corresponding author from OCS (2015) Open Collaboration of Science: Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science. Science 349: 943; supplementary: 4716-1 to 4716-9. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Reproducibility and Replicability in Science. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/25303 |
| [98] |
Rajkumar K, Saint-Jacques G, Bojinov I, et al. (2022) A causal test of the strength of weak ties. Science 377: 1304-1310. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abl4476 doi: 10.1126/science.abl4476
|
| [99] | Ramzy A (2022) For Uyghurs, U.N. Report on China's Abuses Is Long-Awaited Vindication. The report's assessment that China's crackdown in Xinjiang could amount to "crimes against humanity" gives new momentum to a campaign to pressure Beijing, New York Times. Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/01/world/asia/china-xinjiang-uyghurs.html |
| [100] | Robertson J, Bennett D (2022) A Chinese Spy Wanted GE's Secrets, But the US Got China's Instead. How the arrest of a burned-out intelligence officer exposed an economic-espionage machine, Bloomberg. Available from: https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2022-09-15/china-wanted-ge-s-secrets-but-then-their-spy-got-caught |
| [101] | Robertson MP, Lavee J (2022) Execution by organ procurement: Breaching the dead donor rule in China. Am J Transplant. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajt.16969 |
| [102] | Rockoff JD (2022) Pfizer Agrees to.4 Billion Deal for Global Blood Therapeutics. New York drugmaker to pay.50 a share for GBT, which sells a drug for sickle-cell disease and has two more in development, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/pfizer-reaches-5-4-billion-deal-for-global-blood-therapeutics-11659954601 |
| [103] | Roland D (2022) GSK Spins Off Billion Consumer-Healthcare Business Haleon. Pharmaceutical giant sheds toothpaste-to-painkillers arm to sharpen focus on drugs and vaccines, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/gsk-spins-off-36-billion-consumer-healthcare-business-haleon-11658135866 |
| [104] | Roethlisberger F, Dickson W (1939) Management and the worker. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. |
| [105] |
Rudd JB (2021) Why do we think that inflation expectations matter for inflation?(And should we?). Rev Keynesian Econ 10: 25-45. https://doi.org/10.4337/roke.2022.01.02 doi: 10.4337/roke.2022.01.02
|
| [106] | Schölkopf B, Locatello F, Bauer S, et al. (2021) Towards Causal Representation Learning. Available from: https://arXiv.org/pdf/2102.11107.pdf |
| [107] | Schrödinger E (1935) Discussion of Probability Relations Between Separated Systems, Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 31: 555–563; 32: 446–451. |
| [108] | Shannon CE (1948) A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Syst Tech J 27: 379–423. 10.1002/j.1538-7305.1948.tb01338.x |
| [109] |
Sliwa J (2021) Toward collective animal neuroscience. Science 374: 397-398. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abm3060 doi: 10.1126/science.abm3060
|
| [110] | Sider A (2022) JetBlue Agrees to Buy Spirit Airlines for.8 Billion. Deal would create fifth-largest U.S. carrier after JetBlue wrests discount airline from Frontier, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/jetblue-agrees-to-buy-spirit-for-3-8-billion-11659005196 |
| [111] | Smith A (1977) An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. University of Chicago Press. |
| [112] | Sofge DA, Lawless WF, Mittu R (2019) AI Bookie Bet: Autonomous AI takes responsibility: Threat, savior or both? AI Magazine 40: 79-84. |
| [113] | Sorkin AR, Giant V, Gandel S, et al. (2022) The Legal Onslaught Facing Credit Card Companies. Visa faces questions about whether it enabled a porn site to profit from images of child sexual abuse, and both Mastercard and Visa face a new antitrust suit from Disney, New York Times. Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/01/business/dealbook/pornhub-visa-mastercard-disney.html |
| [114] | Sorkin AR, de la Merced MJ (2022) Starbucks Names a New Chief Executive. Laxman Narasimhan, who will take over for Howard Schultz in April, will lead the company at a time of a growing unionization movement and rising costs, New York Times. Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/01/business/dealbook/starbucks-ceo.html |
| [115] | Steinberg J, Ensign RL, Patrick M (2022) Credit Suisse CEO Thomas Gottstein Set to Depart. Executive has headed the Swiss bank since the start of the pandemic, presided over series of costly mishaps, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/credit-suisse-ceo-thomas-gottstein-set-to-depart-11658858441 |
| [116] | Stiff P (2022) Grubhub Parent Takes Billion Write-Down on Food-Ordering Service. Just Eat says it continues to explore the sale of the U.S. business, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/grubhub-parent-takes-3-billion-write-down-on-food-ordering-service-11659532196 |
| [117] | Strobel WP (2022) War Game Finds U.S., Taiwan Can Defend Against a Chinese Invasion. All sides would pay a heavy price if ever there were a military conflict over the island, World Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/war-game-finds-u-s-taiwan-can-defend-against-a-chinese-invasion-11660047804 |
| [118] | Talty J (2022) The Leadership Secrets of Nick Saban. How Alabama's Coach Became the Greatest Ever. New York: Matt Holt, publisher/Penguin Random House. |
| [119] | Terlep S (2022a) Peloton's Quarterly Loss Tops.2 Billion as Bike, Treadmill Sales Plunge. Maker of connected fitness equipment says efforts to cut costs and to restructure business around subscriptions are starting to take shape, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/peloton-pton-q4-earnings-report-2022-11661390875 |
| [120] | Terlep S (2022b) Peloton Chairman John Foley to Exit in Management Shake-Up. Fitness-equipment maker says legal chief Hisao Kushi and commercial chief Kevin Cornils are also leaving, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/peloton-chairman-john-foley-to-exit-in-management-shake-up-11663014900 |
| [121] | Tilley A (2022) Microsoft Asks Google, Oracle to Help Crimp Amazon's U.S. Government Cloud Leadership. Software companies trying to get the U.S. to share its cloud-spending more widely by embracing multicloud approach, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/microsoft-asks-google-oracle-to-help-crimp-amazons-u-s-government-cloud-leadership-11658926801 |
| [122] | Troianovski A (2022) With War in Ukraine, Putin Tries to Unravel Gorbachev's Legacy. President Vladimir V. Putin calls the end of the Soviet Union a "genuine tragedy" for Russia, and he blamed Mikhail S. Gorbachev for bending to the demands of a treacherous and duplicitous West, New York Times. Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/31/world/europe/gorbachev-putin-russia.html |
| [123] | U.S. Supreme Court (1970) California v. Green, 399 U.S. 149 (1970), California v. Green, No. 387, Argued April 20, 1970, Decided June 23, 1970,399 U.S. 149. |
| [124] | Van Lange PAM, Ballet D (2015) Interdependence theory, APA Handbook of Personality and Social Psychology: Vol. 3. Interpersonal Relations, M. Mikulincer and P. R. Shaver (Editors-in-Chief). |
| [125] | Von Neumann J, Morgenstern O (1953) Theory of games and economic behavior, Princeton: Princeton University Press. |
| [126] | Vranica S, Gryta T (2022) GE's Latest Invention? 'Vernova, ' the New Name for Its Power Business. Conglomerate unveils new brand for power business as it prepares for breakup, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/general-electric-invention-vernova-new-name-power-business-11658097853 |
| [127] | Wang CJ (2022) China's Semiconductor Breakthrough. SMIC's 7nm process advancement – despite heavy U.S. sanctions – will have major implications for East Asia, The Diplomat. Available from: https://thediplomat.com/2022/08/chinas-semiconductor-breakthrough/ |
| [128] | Weise K (2022) Amazon says it will shut down Amazon Care, its primary and urgent health care business. Last month, the company said it planned to acquire One Medical, a much larger competitor to its own health care business, New York Times. Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/24/business/amazon-care.html |
| [129] | Wong CH (2022) China's Xi Promotes Team of Allies to Influential Posts, Fortifying His Power. Chinese leader puts people in position to run law enforcement, propaganda as he gets ready to claim third term, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/chinas-xi-promotes-team-of-allies-to-influential-posts-fortifying-his-power-11659100754 |
| [130] | Wong CH, Areddy JT (2022) U.N. Report Says China May Have Committed Crimes Against Humanity in Xinjiang. China lobbied heavily against the report, released in the final minutes of Michelle Bachelet's term as U.N. rights-agency chief, Wall Street Journal. Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-n-human-rights-agency-issues-report-on-xinjiang-over-chinas-protest-11661986730 |
| [131] | WP (2001) White Paper. European governance (COM (2001) 428 final; Brussels, 25.7.2001). Brussels, Commission of the European Community. |
| [132] | Zhang H (2022) China's True Elite. Connection to the Communist Party is more important to success in China than test scores, Law & Liberty. Available from: https://lawliberty.org/book-review/chinas-true-elite |
Figures(1) / Tables(1)
William F. Lawless. Autonomous human-machine teams: Reality constrains logic, but hides the complexity of data dependency[J]. Data Science in Finance and Economics, 2022, 2(4): 464-499. doi: 10.3934/DSFE.2022023
DownLoad: