Figure 1.
The mass of the formed Cr(OH)3 precipitate and the remaining concentration Cr(Ⅵ) in the solution as function of scavenger concentration.
Chromium (Cr(Ⅵ)) is a type of hazardous waste generated by the batik industry. In this study, the gamma irradiation technique was applied to precipitate chromium in simulated batik mordanting waste. Gamma irradiation induced the generation of active species, including hydrated electrons (eaq-) and hydrogen atoms (•H), which effectively reduced Cr(Ⅵ) ions to Cr(Ⅲ) and caused precipitation as chromium hydroxide (Cr(OH)3) upon interaction with hydroxide ions (OH-). Optimal precipitation conditions were observed at 40 kGy irradiation dose, 4M of 2-propanol work as scavenger, and pH 9. The applied reaction conditions led to a decrease in the concentration of Cr(Ⅵ) in simulated waste from 11,673 ppm to 177 ppm. The Cr(OH)3 was calcined to form chromium oxide (Cr2O3) and through a chemical process was synthesized back into K2Cr2O7 with the total Cr recovery of 63.39%. SEM and FTIR analysis indicated that the recovery of Cr(Ⅵ) into Cr(OH)3, Cr2O3, and K2Cr2O7 can be considered successful.
Citation: Sugili Putra, Fifi Nurfiana, Junita Sari, Waringin M. Yusmaman. Conversion of chromium from simulated batik waste through the utilization of gamma irradiation technique to produce potassium dichromate[J]. AIMS Environmental Science, 2024, 11(3): 457-470. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2024023
| [1] | George Sikun Xu, Nicholas Chan . Management of radioactive waste from application of radioactive materials and small reactors in non-nuclear industries in Canada and the implications for their new application in the future. AIMS Environmental Science, 2021, 8(6): 619-640. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2021039 |
| [2] | Melanie Voigt, Indra Bartels, Anna Nickisch-Hartfiel, Martin Jaeger . Elimination of macrolides in water bodies using photochemical oxidation. AIMS Environmental Science, 2018, 5(5): 372-388. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2018.5.372 |
| [3] | Raden Darmawan, Sri Rachmania Juliastuti, Nuniek Hendrianie, Orchidea Rachmaniah, Nadila Shafira Kusnadi, Ghassani Salsabila Ramadhani, Yawo Serge Marcel, Simpliste Dusabe, Masato Tominaga . Effect of electrode modification on the production of electrical energy and degradation of Cr (Ⅵ) waste using tubular microbial fuel cell. AIMS Environmental Science, 2022, 9(4): 505-525. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2022030 |
| [4] | Awe Richard, Koyang François, Bineng Guillaume Samuel, Ndimantchi Ayoba, Takoukam Soh Serge Didier, Saïdou . Contribution of 40K arising from agropastoral activities to the total effective dose by plant ingestion in the Far-North, Cameroon. AIMS Environmental Science, 2022, 9(4): 444-460. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2022027 |
| [5] | Lemuel Clark Velasco, Mary Jane Burden, Marie Joy Satiniaman, Rachelle Bea Uy, Luchin Valrian Pueblos, Reynald Gimena . Preliminary assessment of solid waste in Philippine Fabrication Laboratories. AIMS Environmental Science, 2021, 8(3): 255-267. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2021017 |
| [6] | María Sancho, José Miguel Arnal, Gumersindo Verdú-Martín, Cristina Trull-Hernandis, Beatriz García-Fayos . Management of hospital radioactive liquid waste: treatment proposal for radioimmunoassay wastes. AIMS Environmental Science, 2021, 8(5): 449-464. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2021029 |
| [7] | Aarce Tehupeiory, Iva Yenis Septiariva, I Wayan Koko Suryawan . Evaluating Community Preferences for Waste-to-Energy Development in Jakarta: An Analysis Using the Choice Experiment Method. AIMS Environmental Science, 2023, 10(6): 809-831. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2023044 |
| [8] | Roberto Cavallo, Emanuela Rosio, Jacopo Fresta, Giada Fenocchio . Home composting in remote and cross-border areas of the In.Te.Se. project. AIMS Environmental Science, 2021, 8(1): 36-46. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2021003 |
| [9] | Patrycja Przewoźna, Piotr Jankowski, Alfred Stach . Solid waste management in urban space: the volume-weight relationship. AIMS Environmental Science, 2020, 7(6): 575-588. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2020036 |
| [10] | Serpil Guran . Options to feed plastic waste back into the manufacturing industry to achieve a circular carbon economy. AIMS Environmental Science, 2019, 6(5): 341-355. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2019.5.341 |
Chromium (Cr(Ⅵ)) is a type of hazardous waste generated by the batik industry. In this study, the gamma irradiation technique was applied to precipitate chromium in simulated batik mordanting waste. Gamma irradiation induced the generation of active species, including hydrated electrons (eaq-) and hydrogen atoms (•H), which effectively reduced Cr(Ⅵ) ions to Cr(Ⅲ) and caused precipitation as chromium hydroxide (Cr(OH)3) upon interaction with hydroxide ions (OH-). Optimal precipitation conditions were observed at 40 kGy irradiation dose, 4M of 2-propanol work as scavenger, and pH 9. The applied reaction conditions led to a decrease in the concentration of Cr(Ⅵ) in simulated waste from 11,673 ppm to 177 ppm. The Cr(OH)3 was calcined to form chromium oxide (Cr2O3) and through a chemical process was synthesized back into K2Cr2O7 with the total Cr recovery of 63.39%. SEM and FTIR analysis indicated that the recovery of Cr(Ⅵ) into Cr(OH)3, Cr2O3, and K2Cr2O7 can be considered successful.
Batik has developed and evolved throughout its extensive journey. Originating from the limited environment of the palace, batik has now evolved into one of Indonesia's creative industry commodities entering the global market. Batik is a motif technique that uses "canting" or stamps as its drawing media, and the colors of batik itself are applied using dyes. There are two types of dye materials for batik: Natural dyes are extracted from natural substances and synthetic dyes, which are artificial dyes produced by factories [1]. Batik was officially recognized by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity on October 2, 2009 [2]. The formal recognition from international institutions regarding batik can be assumed to have a positive correlation with the increased production and consumer demand for batik. The batik industry has long been a sector that significantly contributes to the national economy.
In addition to the positive impacts it has brought, the development of the batik industry has also raised environmental issues due to the potential pollution from its waste. The waste, characterized by dark color and containing hazardous heavy metals, is generated during the batik process, which includes mordanting, waxing, dyeing, fixation, and the final stripping process [3]. Besides that, toxic heavy metal compounds found in the industrial waste of batik include chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), and manganese (Mn) [4].
Chromium (Cr(Ⅵ)) was come from a process called mordanting. Mordanting was a process to overcome the limitation of natural dyes that were difficult to penetrate into the fabric and prone to fading. Mordanting is employed during dyeing, involving the use of mordant compounds to enhance the dye's affinity for the material/fabric [5]. Some effective and commonly used mordants include potassium aluminum sulfate (KAl(SO4)2); potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7); iron(Ⅱ) sulfate (FeSO4); copper(Ⅱ) sulfate (CuSO4); and tin(Ⅱ) chloride (SnCl2) [6].
Cr(Ⅵ) heavy metal is a persistent, highly bioaccumulative, and toxic chemical that does not easily degrade in the environment and accumulates in the body through the food chain [7]. The toxicity of chromium species depends significantly on its oxidation state. Chromium as Cr(Ⅵ) is toxic and considered carcinogenic, while chromium as Cr(Ⅲ) is an essential micronutrient for humans [7]. The waste of Cr(Ⅵ) heavy metal is one of the hazardous wastes in the batik industry.
The heavy metal Cr(Ⅵ) in the liquid waste must be treated to become less hazardous before being safely disposed into the environment to reduce its toxicity by reducing it to Cr(Ⅲ). Recent advancements in removal technique of Cr(Ⅵ) toxic ion from aqueous solution are adsorption, membrane technology, photocatalyst, electrochemical treatment, microbial treatment, microbial fuel cell, floatation, and ion exchange [8]. However, dealing with these methods has a fundamental disadvantage, namely the occurrence of secondary contamination in waste and the need for the use of reagents to separate deposits. Therefore, a new approach is needed to overcome these drawbacks, including utilizing the gamma irradiation technique.
When gamma rays hit a medium in the form of a solution, radiolysis reactions occur, producing radical species such as hydrated electrons (eaq-), hydrogen atoms (•H), and hydroxyl radicals (•OH) [9,10,11]. The bracketed values with reactive species produced from radiolysis of water depicts radiation chemical yield (G-value), the number of species (i.e., atoms, ions, and molecules) in micromole (μmol) formed or consumed by 1 J of absorbed radiation energy [12]. The strong reducing effect of hydrated electrons (eaq-) and hydrogen atoms (•H) can directly reduce Cr(Ⅵ) ions to a lower valence state, turning them into Cr(Ⅲ) that forms precipitate when reacting with hydroxide ions (OH-) present in wastewater as shown in the Eqs 1–4 [13]. This reaction forms a Cr(OH)3 precipitate, which can be separated by ordinary filtration.
| H2O→e−aq(0.28),∙H(0.06),∙OH(0.29),H2(0.047),H2O2(0.07),H3O+(0.27) | (1) |
| Cr6++3e−aq→Cr3+ | (2) |
| Cr6++3∙H→Cr3++3H+ | (3) |
| Cr3++3OH−→Cr(OH)3↓ | (4) |
The presence of hydroxyl radicals (•OH), which act as oxidizers, can interfere with the precipitation process, but their presence can be eliminated using a scavenger. Scavengers that can be used include 2-propanol, t-butanol, formic acid, and sodium formate [10,13]. The scavenger used in this study is 2-propanol.
The precipitation process of Cr with the radiolytic reduction method will be optimal in the pH range of 7–9.5. At a pH that is too low, hydrated electrons are quickly captured by hydrogen ions and converted into hydrogen atoms. On the other hand, at a pH above 9.5, it causes G-values for •OH and eaq- decrease [10]. Additionally, Cr(Ⅲ) compound will remain soluble at low pH and will begin to precipitate as Cr(OH)3, reaching a maximum at pH 7 to 9.72 [14]. If Cr(OH)3 is heated, Cr2O3 will be formed [9,13].
The difference between this research and the other research involving the reduction of Cr(Ⅵ) to Cr(Ⅲ) is the uniqueness of batik waste composition. The batik waste contains dyes and wax that may influence the reduction and precipitation processes of chromium. In this research, the effect of irradiation doses, pH, and scavenger concentrations was studied to determine the optimal conditions for the formation of Cr precipitates from simulated liquid waste of batik using gamma irradiation. Furthermore, the formed Cr precipitates will be converted back into potassium dichromate through a chemical process so that the potassium dichromate can be reused. The percentage recovery of the resulting potassium dichromate from this recycling process was calculated.
Jalawe fruit skin, batik wax, potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) from Merck, pro analysis 2-propanol from Merck, perchloric acid (HClO4) from Supelco, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) from Merck, and aquadest from Merck Millipore with resistance 18.2 MOhm.cm were used in this study.
A type Ⅰ of gamma irradiator with a Co-60 radioactive source was used to irradiated sample. The irradiator was installed at Polytechnic Institute of Nuclear Technology BRIN with dose rate 2.930 kGy/h at November, 2022. The irradiator has been calibrated with reference from Riso High Dose Reference Laboratory, Technical University of Denmark. B3 DoseStix was used as dosimeter. Monitoring the pH solution was used a pH/C meter Hanna Instruments HI 2210, remained Cr(Ⅵ) concentration in sample solution was determined used XRF Rigaku Nex QC by generated standar curve of Cr(Ⅵ) from K2Cr2O7. Analysis of solid samples resulted from precipitation was done with FTIR Shimadzu IR-Spirit and SEM-EDS Hitachi SU3500.
The 50 grams of Jalawe fruit skin in 500 ml of water was boiled for 2 hours, the filtrate was taken to get the natural dyes. The 3.3 grams of K2Cr2O7 was added with 1 ml of natural dye from the extract of Jalawe fruit skin that has been made and 0.02 grams batik wax. The mixture was dissolved in 100 ml of water and stirred.
The liquid waste from batik fixation was filtered with Whatman paper to separate wax from the waste solution.
The simulated waste was added with 2-propanol at variations of 1M, 2M, 4M, 6M, 8M, and irradiated at a dose of 40 kGy, as well as measured the pH of the waste. The obtained precipitate was dried in an oven at 105 ℃ for 2 hours, and the formed precipitate was weighed and the remained Cr(Ⅵ) at solution was measured.
The simulated waste was added with optimum scavenger concentration and irradiated at dose 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 kGy and measured the pH of the waste. The obtained precipitate was dried in an oven at 105 ℃ for 2 hours. The formed precipitate was weighed and the remained Cr(Ⅵ) at solution was measured.
The simulated waste was varied the acidity level (pH) to 3, 5, 7, 8, 11, then added with optimum scavenger concentration and irradiated with optimum irradiation dose. The obtained precipitate is dried in an oven at 105 ℃ for 2 hours. The formed precipitate was weighed and the remained Cr(Ⅵ) at solution was measured.
The simulated waste was added with optimum scavenger concentration and conditioned at optimum pH, and Irradiated at optimum irradiation dose. The precipitate was filtered with Whatman paper and dried the precipitate at 105 ℃ for 2 hours. It was expected that Cr(OH)3 is formed. Weighed the Cr(OH)3 precipitate.
The obtained Cr(OH)3 precipitate was calcined at 500 ℃ for 5 hours. It was expected that Cr2O3 formed in this process. KOH was heated at 200 ℃, after KOH melted completely, was added Cr2O3 with a mass ratio of KOH to Cr2O3 is 2:1. KNO3 was added to the mixture with a mass ratio of KNO3 to Cr2O3 is 3:1. The mixture was mixed until homogenous and becomes a thick paste.
The mixture was cooled and dissolved at 100 ml of aquadest then heated until dissolved. The solution was filtered and the obtained filtrate was collected in an evaporating dish (a yellow filtrate). The filtrate was heated at 120 ℃ until saturated, added glacial acetic acid dropwise while stirred (until it turned orange-red and did not change anymore). The filtrate was cooled immediately in an ice bath until crystals formed. The formed crystal was filtered then dried at 150 ℃ and weighed its mass. The percentage of chromium (Cr) recovery was calculated.
A scavenger is a radical attractor intentionally added to control the products of a reaction. In the context of the deposition of Cr(Ⅵ) into Cr(Ⅲ) in the form Cr(OH)3, the scavenger will attract •OH radicals thereby preventing the re-oxidation of Cr(Ⅲ) back into Cr(Ⅵ) by reacting with •OH radicals. In this study, 2-propanol was employed as the scavenger. The 2-propanol reacts with •OH radicals (oxidative) and form reducing (CH3)2C•OH radicals according to the reaction (6). Therefore, when adding a scavenger, the number of reducing radicals (G-value) in solution could be increased twice. Both solvated electrons and (CH3)2C•OH radicals participate in reduction of Cr(Ⅵ) to Cr(Ⅲ). The contribution of hydrogen radicals to this process is negligible, since their G-value is small.
The 2-propanol scavenger was varied with concentrations of 0 M, 1 M, 2 M, 4 M, 6 M, and 8 M. The measured pH of the waste solution before irradiation was 4.3 and the waste was irradiated 40.0 kGy. The graph showed that the lowest mass of Cr(OH)3 precipitate was reached without the addition of 2-propanol scavenger. This occurs due to the absence of the radical scavenger, so that the hydroxyl ions (•OH) reacting with reduced Cr(Ⅲ) ions. As a result, Cr(Ⅲ) ions oxidize back to Cr(Ⅵ) ions without reacting with hydroxide ions (OH-) as shown at Eq 5.
| Cr3++3OH∙→Cr6++3OH− | (5) |
The mass of the Cr(OH)3 precipitate increases with the rising concentration of 2-propanol scavenger. The maximum amount of precipitate was observed at a concentration of 4 M followed by decreased Cr(Ⅵ) concentration in the solutions. At 6 M and beyond concentration of 2-propanol, the mass of Cr(OH)3 is decreased. This indicates that the optimal capture of hydroxyl radicals (•OH) and hydrogen ions (•H) by 2-propanol occurs at a concentration of 4 M.
| (CH3)2CHOH+OH∙→(CH3)2C∙OH+H2O | (6) |
| (CH3)2CHOH+H∙→(CH3)2C∙OH+H2 | (7) |
Reactions (6-7) [15] result in the release of one hydrogen atom from 2-propanol, produced the unstable radical (CH3)2C•OH. To achieve stability, this radical reacted with Cr(Ⅵ) ions to created Cr(Ⅲ) and C3H6O (propanal) as the products (Eq 8). Furthermore, the formed Cr(Ⅲ) ions reacted with hydroxide ions (OH-) to form the Cr(OH)3 precipitate.
| [3(CH3)2C∙OH+Cr6+→Cr3++3H++3C3H6O | (8) |
Increasing the concentration of 2-propanol after 6 M will decrease the mass of Cr(OH)3 precipitate. This occurs because the excessive concentration of 2-propanol scavenger competes with hexavalent chromium to react with hydrated electrons (eaq-). According to the calculation, the amount of scavenger needed capture the •OH and •H radicals are 0.14 M, with estimation of precipitated Cr(OH)3 was 0.47 g.
The simulated chromium waste was irradiated with varying doses of 10 kGy, 20 kGy, 30 kGy, 40 kGy, and 50 kGy, with the addition of 4 M 2-propanol as scavenger and the measured pH before irradiation was 4.3. Figure 2 showed that with increasing irradiation doses, the mass of the formed Cr(OH)3 precipitate increased. The optimum mass of the Cr(OH)3 precipitate was observed at dose 40 kGy, but followed by a decreased at dose 50 kGy.
The increase in the mass of the Cr(OH)3 precipitate occurs because the amount of reducing agents produced is influenced by the absorbed dose. The higher the irradiation dose, the more reducing agents were generated from the radiolysis process. These agents reduced Cr(Ⅵ) ions to lower-charged chromium ions (Cr(Ⅲ)). As a result, the concentration of Cr(Ⅵ) in the waste decreased and the formed Cr(OH)3 precipitate increased.
At a dose 50 kGy, there is a decreased in the mass of the formed Cr(OH)3 precipitate or an increase in the remaining Cr(Ⅵ) in the solution. This is due to the larger radiation intensity applied to the sample, causing more hydroxyl radical (•OH) compounds to be generated in the solution through water radiolysis. Consequently, the concentration of 2-propanol scavenger used should be higher. The concentration of the scavenger used is not sufficient to capture the abundant hydroxyl radicals formed at doses above 40 kGy. As a result, hydroxyl radicals (•OH) react with Cr(Ⅲ) ions, and the Cr(Ⅲ) ions are re-oxidized, producing Cr(Ⅵ) ions. This leads to an increased in the concentration of Cr(Ⅵ) in the waste solution, and the formed Cr(OH)3 precipitate decreased.
The acidity levels of simulated chromium waste were varied to pH 2, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 by adding sulfuric acid (H2SO4) or NaOH. The 4 M of 2-propanol as a scavenger was added, followed by irradiation at a dose of 40 kGy. Figure 3 showed the optimum formation of Cr(OH)3 precipitate and the lowest remains of Cr(Ⅵ) was observed at alkaline pH, with the optimum pH was 9. Some studies have reported that the optimum pH for this conditions is between 8.5–9.5 due to the solubility of chromium hydroxide in that range [16,17]. It is rational to expect that the generated Cr(Ⅲ) could be spontaneously precipitated under alkaline conditions due to the low solubility of Cr(OH)3 (pKsp = 30.2) [17]. However, it dissolves more readily in low or acidic pH conditions. Cr(OH)3 is amphoterous, that can react with both hydrogen and hydroxide ions.
At pH 2 and 4, which are acidic conditions, an excess of hydrogen ions (H+) was formed, leading to more reactions between hydrogen and hydroxide ions than the precipitation reaction. At pH 8 and the optimal pH of 9, which are alkaline conditions, the formation of an excess of hydrogen ions (H+) was minimized. This ensures that the precipitation reaction was not disturbed by the reaction between hydrogen and hydroxide ions, facilitating the desired Cr(OH)3 precipitation. At pH 7 (neutral conditions), the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-) was balanced, resulting in no excessive reaction between H+ and OH-, as observed in acidic and alkaline environments. In this condition, Cr(OH)3 precipitation can occur but not optimal. At pH 11 (highly alkaline conditions), if there is an excess of OH-, the Cr(OH)3 precipitate will redissolve, forming tetrahydroxo chromate (Ⅲ) ions with the following reaction equation:
| Cr(OH)3+OH−⇌[Cr(OH)4]− | (9) |
The optimum conditions for chromium precipitation from the simulated batik fixation waste were at scavenger concentration of 4 M, irradiation dose of 40 kGy, and at alkaline environment with a pH before irradiation was 9. The resulting Cr(OH)3 precipitate under these conditions was 1.678 grams from 3.3 grams of K2Cr2O7 in the simulated waste. The Chromium recovery in this process was 72, 6 %.
Chromium(Ⅲ) Oxide (Cr2O3) formation occurs through the calcined of chromium(Ⅲ) hydroxide Cr(OH)3 at a temperature of 500 ℃ for 5 hours as shown at Eq10. From 1.678 grams of Cr(OH)3 was obtained 1.2 grams of Cr2O3. The Chromium recovery in this process was 96.9 %.
| 2Cr(OH)3→Cr2O3+3H2O | (10) |
By Heating a mixture of KOH, KNO3, and Cr2O3 was produced a yellow filtrate, namely potassium chromate (K2CrO4). The reaction formed at Eq 11 [18].
| Cr2O3+3KNO3+4KOH→2K2Cr2O4+3KNO2+2H2O | (11) |
The acidification process was carried out by adding glacial acetic acid to convert potassium chromate into orange-colored potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7). Potassium dichromate was stable in an acidic environment and the ion's reaction was reversible. In a neutral or alkaline solution, chromate ions are stable, while in an acidic environment, chromate ions are present. Besides accelerating the formation of potassium dichromate, the addition of acetic acid aims to bind impurities that may be present in the potassium dichromate formation process. The reaction that occurs was shown at Eq 12 [18].
| 2K2CrO4+2CH3COOH⇌K2Cr2O7+2CH3COOK+H2O | (12) |
Subsequently, the purification of the resulting potassium dichromate product is carried out using the recrystallization principle, where the substance is cooled directly in an ice bath while in a hot state. This accelerates crystal formation. The next steps involve filtration and drying of the crystals. The mass of potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) formed in this process was 2.01 grams from 1.2 grams of Cr2O3. The Chromium recovery in this process was 89.28 %, with the total Cr recovery was 63.39%.
The SEM results of Cr(OH)3 (Figure 4a) showed a rough surface at a magnification of 2000 times. This aligned with previous study which states that at the micrometer scale Cr(OH)3 SEM results showed a rougher surface compared to Cr2O3 [19]. The C2O3 (Figure 4b) particles appear smaller than Cr(OH)3 and showed concave pits indicating water loss in the Cr2O3 formation through calcination. SEM results for Cr2O3 showed that all particles exhibit a spherical shape with a high level of agglomeration among fine particles. Potassium dichromate crystals (Figure 4c) appear as fine particles or particle clusters.
Figure 5 (a) showed the FTIR spectrum of the Cr(OH)3 precipitate sample. An absorption band at around 940 cm-1 was assigned to stretching vibrations of the Cr-O bond [20]. The two weak and broad bands at about 1630 cm-1 and 3400 cm-1 are due to the O-H vibration of water molecules adsorbed on the surfaces [21]. The peaks at 1480 cm-1 and 1370 cm-1 can be assigned to the splitting of the asymmetric stretching of metal carbonate [22] absorbed from the air during the synthesis.
Figure 5(b) presented the FTIR spectrum of the Cr2O3 sample calcined at 500 ℃. The result aligned with previous research which showed two sharp peaks at 575 and 630 cm-1 assigned to the Cr-O stretching [21]. The peak at 3416 cm-1 is attributed to the stretching of O-H from hydroxyl groups bonded with H. Peaks at 1039 cm-1 and 1628 cm-1 represent the bending vibration of H-O-H from physically adsorbed water molecules. The peak at 950 cm-1 is associated with the stretching of Cr-O bonds.
Figure 5 (c) presented the FTIR spectrum of the K2Cr2O7 sample and commercial one. The result showed peak at 555 and 754 cm-1 confirming the previous studies. The peak at the wavenumber of 555 cm-1 was caused by the symmetric stretching vibration of Cr-O-Cr, while the peak at 754 cm-1 was caused by the anti-symmetric stretching vibration of Cr-O-Cr [23]. The peak at the wavenumber of 891 cm-1 was attributed to the symmetric stretching vibration of Cr-O3, while the very intense peak at 935 cm-1 was caused by the asymmetric stretching vibration of Cr-O3 [23]. It can be observed that there was no significant difference between the peaks of the K2Cr2O7 sample and the K2Cr2O7 commercial product. This indicated that the recovery of Cr(Ⅵ) into K2Cr2O7 can be considered successful.
The reduction of Cr(Ⅵ) to Cr(Ⅲ) was carried in the synthetic chrome mordanting batik waste by gamma radiolysis of water in the presence of natural jalawe dye and the wax. Optimal precipitation conditions were observed at 40 kGy irradiation dose, 4M of 2-propanol work as scavenger, and pH 9. Radiolytic precipitation produced Cr(OH)3, followed by calcination to form Cr2O3. Through a chemical process, Cr2O3 can be change back to K2Cr2O7. The SEM and FTIR result revealed that the recovery of Cr(Ⅵ) into Cr(OH)3, Cr2O3, and K2Cr2O7 can be considered successful.
The authors declare they have not used Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools in the creation of this article.
The authors gratefully acknowledge financial and infrastructure support from the Polytechnic Institute of Nuclear Technology, National Research and Innovation Agency of Indonesia.
The authors declare that they have no personal interest that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
| [1] |
Purwanto P (2019) Exploration of natural dyes as alternative substitutes of synthetic dyes on batik making fabrics. J Phys Conf Ser 1375: 12–23. https://doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1375/1/012023. doi: 10.1088/1742-6596/1375/1/012023
|
| [2] |
Pramugani A, Soda S, Argo T A (2020) Current situation of batik wastewater treatment in Pekalongan City, Indonesia. J Japan Soc Civ Eng 8: 188–193. https://doi.org/10.2208/journalofjsce.8.1_188. doi: 10.2208/journalofjsce.8.1_188
|
| [3] | Alamsyah A, Maziyah S, Supriyono A (2020) Natural Coloring as a Coloring Material for Batik Craft in Jepara. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Indonesian Social and Political Enquiries, ICISPE 2019, 21–22 October 2019, Semarang, Central Java, Indonesia. http://dx.doi.org/10.4108/eai.21-10-2019.2294350. |
| [4] | Natalina N, Firdaus H (2018) Penurunan Kadar Kromium Heksavalen (Cr6+) Dalam Limbah Batik Menggunakan Limbah Udang (Kitosan). Teknik. 38: 99–102. http://doi:10.14710/teknik.v38n2.13403. |
| [5] |
Sarwono Darwoto, Adi S P (2022) Utilizing Indigofera Natural Dyes to Develop Batik. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci 1114: 12–40. http://doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1114/1/012040. doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/1114/1/012040
|
| [6] | Yılmaz F, Bahtiyari M İ (2017) Investigation of the usability of Hibiscus plant as a natural dye source. 5th Int Symp Innov Technol Eng Sci 952–956. https://isites.info/PastConferences/ISITES2017/ISITES2017/papers/C3-ISITES2017ID179.pdf. |
| [7] |
Wang Y, Su H, Gu Y, et al. (2017) Carcinogenicity of chromium and chemoprevention: A brief update. Onco Targets Ther 10: 4065–4079. https://doi.org/10.2147/OTT.S139262. doi: 10.2147/OTT.S139262
|
| [8] |
Karimi-Maleh H, Ayati A, Ghanbari S, et al. (2021) Recent advances in removal techniques of Cr(Ⅵ) toxic ion from aqueous solution: A comprehensive review. J Mol Liq 329: 115062. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2020.115062. doi: 10.1016/j.molliq.2020.115062
|
| [9] |
Alrehaily LM, Joseph JM, Musa AY, et al. (2013) Gamma-radiation induced formation of chromium oxide nanoparticles from dissolved dichromate. Phys Chem Chem Phys 15: 98–107. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2cp43150e. doi: 10.1039/c2cp43150e
|
| [10] |
Shrivastava KC, Pandey SP, Kumar SA, et al. (2020) Remediation of chromium(Ⅵ) ions as chromium oxide xerogel via gamma-radiolysis of aqueous waste discharge. Sep Purif Technol 236: 116291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2019.116291. doi: 10.1016/j.seppur.2019.116291
|
| [11] |
Djouider F (2012) Radiolytic formation of non-toxic Cr(Ⅲ) from toxic Cr(Ⅵ) in formate containing aqueous solutions: A system for water treatment. J Hazard Mater 223–224: 104–109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.04.059. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.04.059
|
| [12] |
Shah NS, Khan J A, Sayed M, et al. (2020) Synergistic effects of H2O2 and S2O82− in the gamma radiation induced degradation of congo-red dye: Kinetics and toxicities evaluation. Sep Purif Technol 233: 115966. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2019.115966. doi: 10.1016/j.seppur.2019.115966
|
| [13] |
Alrehaily LM, Joseph JM, Wren J C (2015) Radiation-induced formation of chromium oxide nanoparticles: Role of radical scavengers on the redox kinetics and particle size. J Phys Chem C 119: 16321–16330. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.5b02540. doi: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.5b02540
|
| [14] |
Rai D, Sass BM, Moore DA (1987) Chromium(Ⅲ) Hydrolysis Constants and Solubility of Chromium(Ⅲ) Hydroxide. Inorg Chem 26: 345–349. https://doi.org/10.1021/ic00250a002. doi: 10.1021/ic00250a002
|
| [15] |
Li Z, Yang Y, Relefors A, et al. (2021) Tuning morphology, composition and oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) catalytic performance of manganese oxide particles fabricated by γ-radiation induced synthesis. J Colloid Interface Sci 583: 71–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2020.09.011. doi: 10.1016/j.jcis.2020.09.011
|
| [16] | Choppala G, Bolan N, Park J H (2013) Chromium Contamination and Its Risk Management in Complex Environmental Settings. Advances in Agronomy. 120: 129–171. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-407686-0.00002-6. |
| [17] |
Xie B, Shan C, Xu Z, et al. (2017) One-step removal of Cr(Ⅵ) at alkaline pH by UV/sulfite process: Reduction to Cr(Ⅲ) and in situ Cr(Ⅲ) precipitation. Chem Eng J 308: 791–797. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2016.09.123. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2016.09.123
|
| [18] |
Zhi Sun, Yi Zhang, SL Zheng. (2009) A New Method of Potassium Chromate Production from Chromite and KOH-KNO3-H2O Binary Submolten Salt System. AIChE J 55: 2646–2656. https://doi.org/10.1002/aic.11871 doi: 10.1002/aic.11871
|
| [19] |
Gomes ASO, Simic N, Wildlock M, et al. (2018) Electrochemical Investigation of the Hydrogen Evolution Reaction on Electrodeposited Films of Cr(OH)3 and Cr2O3 in Mild Alkaline Solutions. Electrocatalysis 9: 333–342. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12678-017-0435-1. doi: 10.1007/s12678-017-0435-1
|
| [20] |
Mao, L., Gao, B., Deng, N., et al. (2016) Oxidation behavior of Cr(Ⅲ) during thermal treatment of chromium hydroxide in the presence of alkali and alkaline earth metal chlorides. Chemosphere 145: 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.11.053. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.11.053
|
| [21] |
Khalaji AD (2020) Cr2O3 Nanoparticles: Synthesis, Characterization, and Magnetic Properties. Nanochemistry Res 5: 148–153. https://doi.org/10.22036/ncr.2020.02.005 doi: 10.22036/ncr.2020.02.005
|
| [22] |
Makhloufi S, Omari E, Omari M (2019) Synthesis, characterization, and electrocatalytic properties of La0.9Sr0.1Cr1−xCo xO3 perovskite oxides. J Aust Ceram Soc 55: 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41779-018-0204-5. doi: 10.1007/s41779-018-0204-5
|
| [23] |
Azeez HS, Mohammad M R (2017) Study the Structure, Morphology and Vibration Modes for K2CrO4 and K2Cr2O7. J Al-Nahrain Univ 20: 71–76. https://doi.org/10.22401/JUNS.20.2.09. doi: 10.22401/JUNS.20.2.09
|
Figures(5)
Sugili Putra, Fifi Nurfiana, Junita Sari, Waringin M. Yusmaman. Conversion of chromium from simulated batik waste through the utilization of gamma irradiation technique to produce potassium dichromate[J]. AIMS Environmental Science, 2024, 11(3): 457-470. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2024023
DownLoad:
