Resistive and propulsive forces in wheelchair racing: a brief review

Ricardo Silveira; Daniel A. Marinho; Catarina C. Santos; Tiago M. Barbosa; Eduarda Coelho; Jorge Morais; Pedro Forte; Ricardo Silveira; Daniel A. Marinho; Catarina C. Santos; Tiago M. Barbosa; Eduarda Coelho; Jorge Morais; Pedro Forte

doi:10.3934/biophy.2022004

AIMS Biophysics

2022, Volume 9, Issue 1: 42-55. doi: 10.3934/biophy.2022004

Previous Article Next Article

Research article Special Issues

Resistive and propulsive forces in wheelchair racing: a brief review

1.
Department of Sports, Higher Institute of Educational Sciences of the Douro, 4560-708 Penafiel, Portugal
2.
Department of Sport and Physical Education, Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal
3.
Research Center for Sports Health and Human Development, 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal
4.
Department of Sports Sciences University of Beira Interior 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal
5.
Department of Sports Sciences, Health and Exercise, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Edifício de Ciências do Desporto, Quinta de Prados, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal

Received: 26 October 2021 Revised: 09 February 2022 Accepted: 20 February 2022 Published: 01 March 2022

Wheelchair racing is one of the most important sports in the Paralympics. The detailed analysis of all parameters is of great importance to achieve sporting excellence in this modality. In wheelchair racing, resistive and propulsive forces determine the movement of the athlete-wheelchair system. Most of propulsive forces are generated by the strength of individuals. As a result, strength levels play an important role in propelling the athlete-wheelchair system. Thus, the main objective of this study is to provide a set of methodologies to assess propulsive and resistive forces. The manuscript presents different methods and procedures, based on previous studies, that can be used for wheelchair racing athletes. Resistive forces in wheelchair racing can be evaluated by analytical procedures, experimental tests, and numerical simulations. Moreover, the strength of athletes' upper limbs to generate propulsion in wheelchair races can be assessed by dynamometry, one-repetition maximum, and medicine ball throw test. It may be that the tests presented may be useful to predict the strength and endurance of athletes' upper limbs. However, this competitive sport still presents a considerable gap in the Paralympics research. Currently, in Paralympic sport, evidence-based methodologies are lacking, making it an issue for athletes, coaches and researchers to support their work on scientific evidences.
- Paralympics,
- drag,
- rolling resistance,
- strength,
- performance
Citation: Ricardo Silveira, Daniel A. Marinho, Catarina C. Santos, Tiago M. Barbosa, Eduarda Coelho, Jorge Morais, Pedro Forte. Resistive and propulsive forces in wheelchair racing: a brief review[J]. AIMS Biophysics, 2022, 9(1): 42-55. doi: 10.3934/biophy.2022004

Related Papers:

Abstract

Wheelchair racing is one of the most important sports in the Paralympics. The detailed analysis of all parameters is of great importance to achieve sporting excellence in this modality. In wheelchair racing, resistive and propulsive forces determine the movement of the athlete-wheelchair system. Most of propulsive forces are generated by the strength of individuals. As a result, strength levels play an important role in propelling the athlete-wheelchair system. Thus, the main objective of this study is to provide a set of methodologies to assess propulsive and resistive forces. The manuscript presents different methods and procedures, based on previous studies, that can be used for wheelchair racing athletes. Resistive forces in wheelchair racing can be evaluated by analytical procedures, experimental tests, and numerical simulations. Moreover, the strength of athletes' upper limbs to generate propulsion in wheelchair races can be assessed by dynamometry, one-repetition maximum, and medicine ball throw test. It may be that the tests presented may be useful to predict the strength and endurance of athletes' upper limbs. However, this competitive sport still presents a considerable gap in the Paralympics research. Currently, in Paralympic sport, evidence-based methodologies are lacking, making it an issue for athletes, coaches and researchers to support their work on scientific evidences.

Acknowledgments

This research is supported by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P. (project UIDB04045/2020) and The APC. It has been funded by the Research Center in Sports Health and Human Development, Covilhã, Portugal.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Author contributions:

Conceptualization, R.S.; P.F.; E.C. and J.E.M..; methodology, P.F. and J.E.M.; validation, T.M.B, D.A.M; formal analysis, R.S., C.C.S P.F.; investigation, R.S. and P.F.; resources, D.A.M and T.M.B.; data curation, R.S. and P.F.; writing—original draft preparation, R.S. C.C.S. and P.F.; writing—review and editing, P.F., J.E.M., E.C., T.M.B; visualization, D.A.M, E.C. and J.E.M.; supervision, P.F., E.C. and J.E.M.; project administration, R.S. and P.F.; funding acquisition, D.A.M. and T.M.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

References

[1]	Celestino T, Pereira A (2018) In a pursuit of excellence in the adapted sport: a case study. Desporto e Atividade Física para Todos–Revista Ciêntifica da FPDD 4: 25-37.
[2]	Forte P, Barbosa TM, Marinho DA (2015) Technologic appliance and performance concerns in wheelchair racing–helping Paralympic athletes to excel, In: Liu, C.H.,: 101-121. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61806
[3]	IPC International Paralympic Committee Athletics Classification Rules and Regulations, 2018. Available from: https://www.paralympic.org/athletics/classification
[4]	Tweedy S, Bourke J (2009) IPC athletics classification project for physical impairments: Final report—stage 1.
[5]	Forte P, Marinho DA, Morais JE, et al. (2018) Estimation of mechanical power and energy cost in elite wheelchair racing by analytical procedures and numerical simulations. Comput Method Biomec Biomed Eng 21: 585-592. https://doi.org/10.1080/10255842.2018.1502277
[6]	Barbosa TM, Forte P, Morais JE, et al. (2014) Partial contribution of rolling friction and drag force to total resistance of an elite wheelchair athlete. In 1st International Conference in Sports Science & Technology : 749-753.
[7]	Barbosa TM, Coelho E (2017) Monitoring the biomechanics of a wheelchair sprinter racing the 100 m final at the 2016 Paralympic games. Eur J Phys 38: 044001.
[8]	Vanlandewijck YC, Verellen J, Tweedy SM (2010) Towards evidence-based classification-the impact of impaired trunk strength on wheelchair propulsion. Adv Rehabil 3: 1-5. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284843638
[9]	Cooper RA (1990) Wheelchair racing sports science: a review. J Rehabil Res Dev 27: 295-312.
[10]	Forte P, Marinho DA, Morais JE, et al. (2019) Analysis of the resistive forces acting on a world-ranked wheelchair sprinter at different speeds. Motricidade 15: 78-79.
[11]	Forte P, Marinho DA, Morais JE, et al. (2018) The variations on the aerodynamics of a world-ranked wheelchair sprinter in the key-moments of the stroke cycle: a numerical simulation analysis. PloS One 13: e0193658. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193658
[12]	Beaumont F, Lestriez P, Estocq P, et al. (2019) Aerodynamic investigation of the thermo-dependent flow structure in the wake of a cyclist. J Biomech 82: 387-391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiomech.2018.11.006
[13]	Blocken B, Toparlar Y, van Druenen T, et al. (2018) Aerodynamic drag in cycling team time trials. J Wind Eng Ind Aerod 182: 128-145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jweia.2018.09.015
[14]	Fuss FK (2009) Influence of mass on the speed of wheelchair racing. Sports Eng 12: 41-53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12283-009-0027-2
[15]	de Groot S, Vegter RJK, van der Woude LHV (2013) Effect of wheelchair mass, tire type and tire pressure on physical strain and wheelchair propulsion technique. Med Eng Phys 35: 1476-1482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.medengphy.2013.03.019
[16]	Cowan RE, Nash MS, Collinger JL, et al. (2009) Impact of surface type, wheelchair weight, and axle position on wheelchair propulsion by novice older adults. Arch Phys Med Rehab 90: 1076-1083. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2008.10.034
[17]	Sagawa Y, Watelain E, Lepoutre FX, et al. (2010) Effects of wheelchair mass on the physiologic responses, perception of exertion, and performance during various simulated daily tasks. Arch Phys Med Rehab 91: 1248-1254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2010.05.011
[18]	Samuelsson KAM, Tropp H, Nylander E, et al. (2004) The effect of rear-wheel position on seating ergonomics and mobility efficiency in wheelchair users with spinal cord injuries: a pilot study. J Rehabil Res Dev 41: 65-74.
[19]	MacLeish MS, Cooper RA, Harralson J, et al. (1993) Design of a composite monocoque frame racing wheelchair. J Rehabil Res Dev 30: 233.
[20]	Forte P, Marinho DA, Nikolaidis PT, et al. (2020) Analysis of cyclist's drag on the aero position using numerical simulations and analytical procedures: a case study. Int J Env Res Pub He 17: 3430. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17103430
[21]	Forte P, Morais JE, P Neiva H, et al. (2020) The drag crisis phenomenon on an elite road cyclist—a preliminary numerical simulations analysis in the aero position at different speeds. Int J Env Res Pub He 17: 5003. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17145003
[22]	Moonen P, Blocken B, Carmeliet J (2007) Indicators for the evaluation of wind tunnel test section flow quality and application to a numerical closed-circuit wind tunnel. J Wind Eng Ind Aerod 95: 1289-1314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jweia.2007.02.027
[23]	Defraeye T, Blocken B, Koninckx E, et al. (2010) Aerodynamic study of different cyclist positions: CFD analysis and full-scale wind-tunnel tests. J Biomech 43: 1262-1268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiomech.2010.01.025
[24]	Singh M, Singh N (2013) Review of design and construction of an open circuit low speed wind tunnel. Glob J Res Eng .
[25]	Moonen P, Blocken B, Roels S, et al. (2006) Numerical modeling of the flow conditions in a closed-circuit low-speed wind tunnel. J Wind Eng Ind Aerod 94: 699-723. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jweia.2006.02.001
[26]	Panda MK, Samanta AK (2016) Design of low cost open circuit wind tunnel-a case study. Indian J Sci Technol 9: 1-7. https://doi.org/10.17485/ijst/2016/v9i30/99195
[27]	Calautit JK, Chaudhry HN, Hughes BR, et al. (2014) A validated design methodology for a closed-loop subsonic wind tunnel. J Wind Eng Ind Aerod 125: 180-194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jweia.2013.12.010
[28]	Forte P, Marinho DA, Barbosa TM, et al. (2020) Estimation of an elite road cyclist performance in different positions based on numerical simulations and analytical procedures. Front Bioeng Biotech 8: 538. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2020.00538
[29]	Kolitzus HJ (2003) Ball roll behavior: The functional relationship of the ball roll distance and the timing gate method: How to calculate the ball roll distance from timing gate measurements. Int Assoc Sport Surf Sci .
[30]	Minkin L, Sikes D (2018) Coefficient of rolling friction-Lab experiment. Am J Phys 86: 77-78. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.5011957
[31]	Marinho DA, Barbosa TM, Mantha V, et al. (2012) Modelling propelling force in swimming using numerical simulations. Fluid Dyn, Comput Model Appl : 439-448.
[32]	Forte P, Marinho DA, Barbosa TM, et al. (2020) Estimation of an elite road cyclist performance in different positions based on numerical simulations and analytical procedures. Front Bioeng Biotech 8: 538. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2020.00538
[33]	Forte P, Marinho DA, Barbosa TM, et al. (2020) Analysis of a normal and aero helmet on an elite cyclist in the dropped position. AIMS Biophys 7: 54-64. https://doi.org/10.3934/biophy.2020005
[34]	White F (1999) Fluid Mechanics 7 Eds., New York. New York: .
[35]	Barbosa TM, Forte P, Estrela JE, et al. (2016) Analysis of the aerodynamics by experimental testing of an elite wheelchair sprinter. Procedia Eng 147: 2-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2016.06.180
[36]	Sawatzky B, Kim W, Denison I (2004) The ergonomics of different tyres and tyre pressure during wheelchair propulsion. Ergonomics 47: 1475-1483. https://doi.org/10.1080/00140130412331290862
[37]	Richard S, Champoux Y, Lépine J, et al. (2015) Using an alternative forced-choice method to study shock perception at cyclists' hands: the effect of tyre pressure. Procedia Eng 112: 361-366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2015.07.263
[38]	Besson U, Borghi L, De Ambrosis A, et al. (2007) How to teach friction: Experiments and models. Am J Phys 75: 1106-1113. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.2779881
[39]	Krasner S (1992) Why wheels work: a second version. Phys Teach 30: 212-215. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.2343520
[40]	Mungan CE (2012) Rolling friction on a wheeled laboratory cart. Phys Educ 47: 288.
[41]	Morais JE, Silva AJ, Marinho DA, et al. (2016) Effect of a specific concurrent water and dry-land training over a season in young swimmers' performance. Int J Perf Anal Sport 16: 760-775. https://doi.org/10.1080/24748668.2016.11868926
[42]	Yanci J, Granados C, Otero M, et al. (2015) Sprint, agility, strength and endurance capacity in wheelchair basketball players. Biol Sport 32: 71. https://doi.org/10.5604/20831862.1127285
[43]	Miyazaki Y, Iida K, Nakashima M, et al. (2020) Measurement of push-rim forces during racing wheelchair propulsion using a novel attachable force sensor system. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part P: Journal of Sports Engineering and Technology : 1754337120904260. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754337120904260
[44]	Kauer JB, Antúnez MLVS, Fração VB, et al. Avaliação da razão de torque dos músculos flexores e extensores do cotovelo em paratletas (2007): 39-46.
[45]	Smith DJ (2003) A framework for understanding the training process leading to elite performance. Sports Med 33: 1103-1126. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200333150-00003
[46]	Turbanski S, Schmidtbleicher D (2010) Effects of heavy resistance training on strength and power in upper extremities in wheelchair athletes. J Strength Cond Res 24: 8-16.
[47]	Tørhaug T, Brurok B, Hoff J, et al. (2016) The effect from maximal bench press strength training on work economy during wheelchair propulsion in men with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 54: 838-842.
[48]	Ragnarsson KT (2008) Functional electrical stimulation after spinal cord injury: current use, therapeutic effects and future directions. Spinal Cord 46: 255-274. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.sc.3102091
[49]	Yang YS, Koontz AM, Triolo RJ, et al. (2009) Biomechanical analysis of functional electrical stimulation on trunk musculature during wheelchair propulsion. Neurorehab Neural Re 23: 717-725.
[50]	Stockbrugger BA, Haennel RG (2001) Validity and reliability of a medicine ball explosive power test. J Strength Cond Res 15: 431-438.
[51]	Van den Tillaar R, Marques MC (2011) A comparison of three training programs with the same workload on overhead throwing velocity with different weighted balls. J Strength Cond Res 25: 2316-2321. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181f159d6

Reader Comments

Your name:*

Email:*
© 2022 the Author(s), licensee AIMS Press. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)